the Macroscelides there is a short and rudi-
mentary pubic symphysis.
The "Mole (Talpa) and the Shrews (Sorcx)
are remarkable for a very narrow sacrum, com-
posed, according to Blainville, of four ver-
tebrae, but, according to Cuvier, of seven in
the Mole and three in the Shrews. In the
Mole the ilia are solidly ankylosed to nearly
the whole length of the sacrum. In the Shrews
the two first only of the sacral pieces are
united with the ilia. The spines in both are
coalesced into a prominent sacral crest.
Caudal pieces numerous.
The ilia are cylindrical, much approximated,
and parallel to the spinal column. The ischia
are much elongated, and elevated posteriorly
above the sacral vertebrae. The pubes are very
short and slender, and though they unite with
the short ischial rami to enclose a small obtu-
rator foramen, do not meet in a symphysis, but
present an anterior interval, said to be wider
in the female than the male, and causing the
whole pelvis to assume very much a bird-like
appearance. The pelvic cavity and outlets are
so strait that the sexual and urinary organs
and rectum pass altogether in front of it.
In the Bats (Cheiroptera) the sacrum (fig.
103, e),is very narrow, compressed posteriorly
into a straight continuous bone, with no lateral
foramina, and composed of three to four ver-
tebrae, which are joined by ankylosis to three
or four upper coccygeal vertebrae, or to more
in the tailed species. There are six to twelve
caudal bones, sometimes absent, as in Pteropus
and Vampire.
Fig. 103.
Pelvis of the Ternate Bat (natural size), -anterior
view ; showing the inter-pubic separation (d, d').
The ilia (a,) are narrow and subcylindrical,
with a thick anterior spine, placed parallel
to the vertebral column, and ankylosed to the
anterior sacral vertebrae. The ischia (c)
are in the same right line with the ilia, and are
PELVIS.
165
ankylosed at the tuberosities with the last
sacral vertebrae, and, as seen especially in the
Ternate Bat, given in the above figure, pre-
senting an appearance as if ankylosed to each
other in one mass, from the extreme narrow-
ness of the sacrum at that part, inclosing a
small sacro-sciatic foramen. The pubes (6)
are thick, short, and very oblique, joining with
the short ischial rami at d, to form an elon-
gated obturator foramen (/). The ilio-pectineal
spine (/*) is very prominent, and recurved
almost like a marsupial bone. This is especially
seen in the Vespertilio spectrum, in which it is
considered by Wagner as the first indication of
a marsupial bone. The pubic symphysis is
totally wanting generally in the Bat tribe,
leaving a large interval (d, d') ; but, accord-
ing to Pallas and Schreger, the males of some
species possess a symphysis, which is wanting
in the female, a peculiarity curiously illustra-
tive of the influence of sex on the pelvis. In
a specimen in the Hunterian Museum the
symphysis, or a close approximation of the
bones, is certainly present, though very short.
The cotyloid cavities in the bats are closely
approximated, and are directed backwards as
well as outwards, causing the retro version of
the feet seen in these animals. The pelvic
canty and outlets are much more capacious
than in the Mole and Shrew.
In the Cetacea, which are in other respects
osteologicallv allied to the Pachydermata, the
pelvic development suddenly becomes dege-
nerated into small elongated bones, which
may be considered as the homologue of the
pubes, and which are imbedded in the muscles
of the abdomen immediately in front of the
ventral opening, and give attachment to the
crura penis. They differ, only in being thicker
and less transparent, from the pelvic bones
of the true Fishes, between which and the
Mammalia these animals are the connecting
link, as the Bats to the Birds, and the Mo-
notremata to the Chelonian reptiles.
In the Dolphins these pubic bones are two
simple, elongated, flat bones placed on each side
of the median line. In some Whales they are
connected by a cross piece, and assume a
hvoid shape {see Jig. 257. Art. Cetacea). In
the Dugong it is a V-shaped bone formed of
four pieces, and articulated to one of the ver-
tebrae by its free extremities. In the Manutus,
according to Carus, they are entirely wanting.
The pelvic structure of Birds is charac-
terised by very evident distinctions from the
mammalian type, the osseous parts being ac-
cumulated, as it were, on the posterior and
lateral parts, leaving the anterior parietes
deficient, and being also thinner and more
spread out, so as to leave smaller foramina.
The sacrum (fig. 104. a) is generally broad
and large, consisting of from eight to twenty
pieces, being increased forwards by ankylosis to
the vertebrae corresponding to the lumbar
region of the Mammalia, and which contribute
to support the iliac wings. This arrangement,
as well as the extensive ankylosis of the ilia
and ischia, has an evident relation to their
bipedal support, and is compensatory for the
deficiency of the pelvic circle anteriorly. It
is much more extensive in the Cursores and
those which use the legs as the most usual
instruments of progression. The bodies of
the sacral vertebrae are raised in a continuous
ridge on the anterior aspect, those imme-
diately between the acetabula being larger
and broader than the rest (fig. 105. a), the
first five or six (s\ which may be considered as
the ankylosed lumbar vertebrae, present marked
spinous processes united in a high crest which
intervenes between, coalesces with, and sup-
ports the iliac wings at their inner margins
(fig. 104. ). Their transverse processes,
which are also ankylosed to the ilia near their
outer borders, are strong and well marked on
the ventral surface, and differ from those of
the true sacral vertebrae in being more pro-
minently advanced and having a direction
more horizontally outwards instead of back-
wards and upwards (fig. 105. r), the most pos-
terior being the thickest and placed at the
junction of the iliac wing with the shaft. A
Fig. 104.
Superior or dorsal aspect of the pelvis of the
Duck : a, sacrum ; b, coalesced lumbar spines ; c,
sacral suture ; d,* m ilium ; e, cotylo-sacral rib ; /,
ischio-sacral buttress ; g, sacro-iliac plate ; h, sacro-
sciatic plate ; t, acetabulum ; k, ischium ; I, sacro-
sciatic foramen ; m, rudiments of ischial ramus ; w,
spine ; o, anterior obturator.; foramen ; p, pubis ; q,
ilio-pectineal spine ; r, anterior ischio-pubic union.
little anterior to the acetabula, however,
where the true sacral vertebrae may be con-
sidered to commence, the spines gradually
become less marked as they emerge from
between the iliac wings and form a more or
less flattened surface (), which is separated
BI 3
166
PELVIS.
from the coalesced transverse processes by
two faintly-marked longitudinal grooves. The
transverse processes of the true sacral ver-
tebrae present a very prominent framework
of ridges anteriorly (fig. 105.), which have a
direction upwards and backwards as well
as outwards, the most strongly marked
being opposite the acetabula (b). They are
coalesced on the superior aspect, by a thin
plate of bone only. The sacrum, as seen from
above {fig- lO^.), has a diamond-shaped ap-
pearance, and is marked out from the iliac and
ischial elements by a faintly-marked suture
(c). The sacrum in Birds is a continuation of
the line of the great dorsal curvature.
The coccyx is generally short, composed of
from five to nine pieces, generally perforated
for the spinal marrow, and curved dorsally, as
we have observed before in some Rodents,
terminating in a spinous-shaped piece (see fig.
107., a).
The ilia are comparatively short and narrow :
with a very short cotylo-sacral rib or shaft (e),
directed upwards and forwards, and expanding
into a wing (d), concave or grooved supe-
riorly. The a/a is prolonged forwards on the
posterior surfaces of the ankylosed lumbar
vertebrae, coalescing with their spines and
transverse processes; and also extends back-
wards to a less degree, to coalesce with the
upper bifurcation of the anterior extremity
of the ischium, in a sort of buttress (/), which
projects externally and overhangs the aceta-
bulum posteriorly, presenting, below, a facet,
against which rests the trochanter of the
femur, and which is apparently a continuation
of the articular cotyloid surface. This but-
tress is continued from the ischium inwards,
as a strong ridge, to the extremity of the
strongest of the sacral transverse processes
before mentioned (Jig. 105.6), opposite the
Fig. 105.
Inferior or ventral view of the pelvis of the Par-
tridge natural size: a, coalesced bodies of sacral
vertebrae ; b, sacral transverse processes ; n, ischial
spine ; r, lumbar or pseudo-sacral processes ; s, anky-
losed lumbar vertebras. The remaining letters refer
to the same parts as in fig. 99.
lateral angles of the diamond-shaped sacral
plate, and evidently contributes in the greatest
degree to support the trunk upon the femurs
in the standing posture. The principal part of
the iiium in birds is composed of the alas,
which lie almost altogether on the dorsal aspect
of the spinal column. The total axis of the
ilium, however, crosses that of the spine at an
angle of from 150 to 160, and does not,
strictly speaking, lie parallel to it, as is com-
monly asserted (see fig. 112. 10.).
From the posterior part of the inner border
of the iliac wing passes backward a thin plate
of bone (g), along the external borders of the
diamond-shaped sacral plate, from which it is
marked by a distinct line of suture (c). It is
continuous, posteriorly and externally, with the
sacro-sciatic ossification, to be presently men-
tioned, from which it is also marked, especially
in the Partridge and some other birds, by a
raised line of demarcation (t). This thin plate
is convex above and concave below, and enters
into the formation of the pelvic cavity, being
much hollowed in the Partridge and the Gal'
linacece generally {fig. 105. g), to receive the
pelvic viscera. It seems to result from the
ossification of the sacro-iliac oblique ligament,
and to form a separate pelvic element which
may be called the sacro-iliac, or ilio-sacral.
The ischia of birds (k) are long, strong, and
divergent posteriorly ; and, from the perfora-
tion of the cotyloids, appear to be bifurcated
at the anterior extremity. The inferior bifur-
cation is horizontal, coalesces with the ilium
and pubis, and separates the acetabulum (i)
from the obturator foramen (o). The
superior bifurcation is vertical in direction,
separating the acetabulum (i) from the sacro-
sciatic foramen (/), and coalescing above, inter-
nally with the long sacral transverse process
(b) and ilio-sacral bone (g), and anteriorly
with the ilium in the ischio- sacral buttress (/),
before mentioned, which it principally con-
tributes to supportand form, and which may be
considered as the homologue of the ischio-sacral
arch in the human pelvis, separated from the
cotylo-sacral rib (e) by a thin plate of bone
above, and by the perforated acetabulum
below. The posterior extremity of the ischium
is much elongated, and constitutes the bulk
of the bone. Its inferior border is spread
out into a broad thin plate, slightly prolonged
into an anterior process (/), which seems
to represent the ascending ramus of Mammals,
from its frequently uniting with the pubis
and forming the posterior boundary of an
obturator foramen.
Its superior border is prolonged into a
broad thin plate (A) hollowed out in the pelvic
cavity, and which constitutes the sacro-sciatic
pelvic element, being evidently formed by ossi-
fication of the sacro-sciatic ligaments, from its
completing posteriorly the sacro-sciatic foramen
(/), and coalescing with the sacro-iliac plate
(g), before mentioned, and, behind it, with the
sacrum. The posterior extremity of the
ischium is prolonged generally into a thin
angular spinous process (n). The ischia in
Birds generally form a right line with the
ilia; but in the Birds of prey they constitute a
remarkable exception, and make a very
PELVIS.
167
marked ilio-ischial angle in the reverse direc-
tion to that of Mammals generally, i. e. with
the retiring sides anterior (see j%/107.)
The pubes of birds are generally long,
slender, rib-like, and divergent, and are com-
posed of a single curved branch (p), having
no angle, and never forming a true interpubic
symphysis, though, in the Ostrich and Falco
Fulvus, they are closely approximated at their
posterior extremity, and form a sort of sym-
physis. The ilio~pubic angle is very large,
from 155 to 160, except in the birds of prey
above alluded to ; and the pubes and ischia
are generally almost parallel. Sometimes the
posterior extremities of the pubes and ischia
unite to form complete elongated obturator
foramina ; and they may be united also near
their anterior extremities, forming a lesser an-
terior division of the foramina, as in the Cur-
sores (see fig. 106. A-). Very often, the boun-
daries of the obturator openings are incom-
plete from the failure of this junction, and the
foramina are wanting altogether ,* or the an-
terior union and foramina only may be present,
as in the Duck (fig. 104. r), from deficiency of
the pubes posteriorly, or their entire approxi-
mation to the ischia. The pelvic cavity is in-
creased in size posteriorly, by the divergence
of the pubes and ischia, and is capable of
great enlargement by the yielding of their
unfixed extremities. The ilio-pectineal emi-
nence is generally present, and often large
in size, constituting a spinous process (</).
The acetabula (i) are perforated and placed
almost close to the borders of the sacrum,
and generally much anterior to the centre of
the whole pelvic length, that the points of
support may be nearer the centre of gravity.
The bird's pelvis thus constitutes a firm,
compact, immobile, box-like structure, de-
ficient inferiorly, affording a large and firm
hold, by the elongated and strong ischia, for
the extensor muscles of the leg ; and, by
the large sacrum and ankylosed ilia, for those
of the trunk, which is placed almost entirely
in front of the supporting femora, and always
more or less at an angle with them, except in
the Grebes and Penguins. The centre of
gravity is not, in birds, directly above these
supports, as in the true erect position of man,
but is placed considerably in advance of the
femurs, and necessitates considerable flexion
of the lower parts of the legs, and great length
of toes, to keep the centre of gravity within
the base of support. The long pelvic muscles,
the tendons of which reach to the toes, by a
constant tendency to flex them, contribute
mainly to preserve this semi-erect position,
even during sleep, and independently of the
will of the animal.
The pelvis of the Cursores (fig. 106.) ap-
proaches most nearly in the massiveness of
the bones to the Mammalian type, as well as,
in the Ostrich, in the formation of a pubic
symphysis.
The sacrum (a) is very long and narrow,
and is composed, according to Cuvier's
tables, of twenty pieces in the Ostrich and
of nineteen in the Emu and Australian Casso-
wary. The spinous and transverse processes
are distinct, and coalesced only at their ex-
106.
Dorsal view of the pelvis of the Ostrich : <*, coa-
lesced sacral spines ; 6, ilium ; c, c 1 , sacro-iliac plate ;
d, sacral chink ; e, ischium ; f, ischio-sacral buttress ;
g, pubis ; A, symphysis ; i, acetabulum ; A, anterior
ischio-pubic suture ; /, anterior obturator opening ;
77i, ilio-pectineal spine ; o, posterior or greater ob-
turator hole.
tremities (a), in the Ostrich (the former being
the only part of the sacrum appearing dorsally),
presenting another close approximation to the
Mammalian condition.
The coccyx is straight, and composed of
seven pieces, which are perforated for the
termination of the spinal marrow, and end in
a conical bone. In the Rhea or American
Ostrich, boih the sacral and coccygeal bones
are much atrophied.
The ilia (b) are comparatively very short,
especially in the Rhea. The alse are thick,
short, and little curved, and lie close to each
other at the upper half of their inner borders,
by which they are ankylosed to the sacral
spines, whose coalesced extremities are seen
between them, forming a tent-like eminence
above the anterior sacral vertebrae, and sup-
ported by their spinous processes in the
manner of tent poles. Anteriorly, they overlap
the posterior ribs ; and posteriorly, they are
prolonged on the sides of the sacrum into a
distinct and prominent ilio-sacral element.
This is an elongated piece of bone, with
a superior (c) and a lateral (c') surface,
H 4
168
PELVIS.
tapering gradually to the posterior extremity
of the sacrum, where it terminates in an
outward curve ; and placed upon the transverse
processes, which it encases, like a frame,
on each side, and to which it is firmly anky-
losed by its inner surface. In the Ostrich, its
thick upper surface or border does not unite
with the similar bone of the opposite side, nor
with the sacral crest; but is separated from
it by a chink," or oval opening, d, gradually
narrowing posteriorly, in which the sacral
spines (a) are seen distinct and separate, and
coalesced only at their extremities. Opposite
the three last sacral spines, however, the
ilio-sacral pieces are ankylosed to the sacral
ridge, and terminate posteriorly the oval chink.
In the Emu and Rhea, the ilio-sacral pieces
are coalesced in their whole length with
the extremities of the sacral spines, and a
narrow diamond-shaped dorsal plate is formed,
composed almost entirely of the united ilio-
sacral plates, and having its angles at the
massy ischio-sacral buttresses.
The ischia (e) are very long and thick, and
form, by the superior vertical bifurcation of
the cotyloid extremity, a very strong ischio-
sacral buttress (/), coalescing at that point
with the ilium, sacrum, and ilio-sacral plate.
In the Ostrich and Emu the ischia are not
connected posteriorly with the sacrum, but a
wide and elongated sacro-sciatic notch inter-
venes. In the latter, the ischial extremities
are free and tubercular. In the Rhea they are
ankylosed, by their posterior four-fifths, not
only to the sacrum, but, like the ischia of
the Bats, to each other, passing in front of the
coccyx and greater part of the sacrum, thus
excluding them from the pelvic cavity, and
enclosing complete sacro-sciatic foramina, which
open into a sort of posterior pelvic cavity.
The -pules (g) are long and slender, and
are united posteriorly to the ischia in the
Ostrich and Rhea, completing the Obturator
Foramina ; but, in the Cassowary, the pubes,
as well as the ischia, are free at their posterior
extremities, and the obturator foramina are
incomplete, like the sacro-sciatic. In the Rhea
and Cassowary they are widely diverging ;
but in the ostrich they approach each other
in a wide curve posteriorly, and unite in a
median interpulic symphysis (//), which curves
forward anteriorly in a hook-like process,
and completes an oblong anterior pelvic outlet
with its longest diameter antero-posterior.
The ilio-pubic angle is 140 in the Rhea, and
155 in the Ostrich and Cassowary. The ilio-
pectineal spines are well marked, especially in
the Ostrich (m). The acetabula (i) are per-
forated, and open partly into the pelvic cavity,
and partly upon the sacrum, and are so closely
approximated that the bodies of the vertebrae
only intervene. Immediately below the ace-
tabula, the ischia and pubes are connected, on
each side, by the suture of an ischial apophysis
with the pubes (&), across the obturator mem-
brane, enclosing a smaller obturator opening
(/), which transmits the vessels and nerves,
and intervenes between the larger obturator
opening (o) and the acetabulum.
In the Apteryx the ilia are longer and more
concave superiorly, and the ilio-sacral prolon-
gation short ; and both are separated more
distinctly from the opposite ones by the
coalesced extremities of the sacral spines,
forming an elongated ridge of bone down the
middle, and separated from the ilia and ilio-
sacral pieces by distinct parallel sutures.
The ischia, in this bird, as well as in the
fossil gigantic Dinornis, or wingless bird of New
Holland, are not placed, as in the Cursores
before mentioned, parallel with the ilia, but
form an anteriorly retiring or reversed ilio-
ischial angle of 140 ; and they do not coalesce
posteriorly, either with the pubes or the
sacrum, but have free truncated extremities,
presenting a great general resemblance to
the pelvis of the Emu. The pubes are parallel
to the ischia, and, like them, free and diver-
gent.
In the Natatores the pelvis is long and broad,
and generally much expanded posteriorly by
the divergence of the ischia and large sacro-
sciatic ossification, for the attachment of the
powerful muscles used in swimming ; and the
great intercotyloid distance gives to their gait
its peculiar waddle (see fig. 104.). That of
the Loons and Penguins, however, is remark-
ably contracted, long, and narrow, with little
intercotyloid distance.
The usual number of sacral vertebrae is
fourteen, as in the Swan ; the Grebe has
thirteen, and the Duck fifteen, and the sea
Swallow ten only. The sacrum is usually
very broad ; but in the Penguin and Loon it is
unusually narrow, and in the former it is united
by ankylosis to the last dorsal vertebra. The
coccyx is usually composed of eight pieces.
The Goose and Pelican have but seven, and
the Barnacle Goose nine. In Penguins it is
strong, and assists in the support of the body
in its usual vertical position. It is usually
curved much dorsally, affording a larger pos-
terior pelvic outlet.
The ilia are moderately long, and overlap
the posterior ribs. In the Penguin they are
said, by Wagner, not to be ankylosed to the
sacrum, but connected only by ligamentous
union ; thus increasing its loose and waddling
gait. The ischia are very long, divergent, and
largely expanded into a very broad sacro-
sciatic element, enclosing a small sacro-sciatic
foramen. They are prolonged posteriorly into
a sort of styliform process in the Auk and
Puffin. The pubes are very long, slender, and
divergent, and are expanded at the extremity,
and curved inwards in the Swan, Diver, arid
Gannett. They do not generally unite with
the isrhia posteriorly ; but, in the Swan, Duck,
and Pelican, the obturator foramina are com-
pleted by the union of these bones, and are
small and elongated.
The GallinccE have large and strong pelves,
in correspondence with their powerful legs,
used chiefly for progression and scratching up
their food.
The sacrum is broad, and composed of
from ten pieces, as in the Turkey, to fifteen
in the Pheasant and common Fowl. The
PELVIS.
169
coccyx has five pieces in the Pheasant and
Turkey, and, in the latter, is said not to be
perforated for the spinal chord. In the Pea-
cock there are eight pieces, and the terminal
bone is a horizontal oval plate to support the
radiating feathers. In the tailless Manx va-
riety of the common Fowl, the coccyx is
borted into a single tubercular projection.
The ilia and ilio-sacral ossifications are broad,
and the ischia long, divergent, and widely
expanded posteriorly into a very broad sacro-
sciatic element, much hollowed out in the
pelvic cavity, and enclosing a large foramen
(see fig. 105. /). This is especially marked in
the Crown Pigeon, Bustard, Crested Curassow,
and Guan. The pubes are long, and generally
unite with the ischia to complete an elongated
obturator hole (p). In the Dove, the pubes
and ischia are united in their whole length, and
the foramen is obliterated, while in the Crested
Guan and Trumpeter it is subdivided into an
anterior and posterior portion, as in the
Ostrich and Rhea.
In the Grallatores the sacrum is broad, and
composed of from ten to twelve pieces, but in
the Oyster Catcher there are fifteen. In the
Snipe the transverse processes are more or
less separated. The coccyx is in seven or
eight pieces.
The ilia and ischia are shorter and broader
than in the Natatores, the former being placed
more parallel to the spine, crossing it at
about 165 ; and the latter forming an ilio-
ischial angle of 160. The inter-cotyloid dis-
tance is very great, especially in the gigantic
Crane, but in the Stork and Bittern the whole
pelvis is smaller and more contracted. The
pubes are long, diverging, and parallel to the
ischia, especially strong in the Aptenodytes ;