followed completely the development of the malignant parasites in it,
but did not inoculate man with it. Occurs in the whole island of
Formosa. Tsuzuki apparently distinguishes two varieties, one of which
is common in the north and the other in the south of Formosa.

Anopheles maculipennis. — Incriminated by the Italians, see under
A. bifurcatus ; also by A. Van de Scheer and Van Berlekom [1900J,
by Schaudinn [1903], by Hirschberg [1904], Husson [1907], and by
Jansco [1904, 1905, 1908], and others. The proof is by complete
cultivation of the parasites, and also by inoculation of man by the
Italians and by Jansc6. Common and generally distributed through-
out Europe, including Russia and Scandinavia. It appears also to
be generally distributed in the United States of America, and to be
common in many parts of Canada. It is chiefly a domestic insect,
found in houses, sheds, stables, and hen coops, etc. This habitat also
obtains to a very large extent in Great Britain. The larvae occur
chiefly in open terrestrial waters in marsh lands, in forests and boggy
places. Theobald states that in Britain the food of both sexes is
entirely vegetable. Ficalbi, on the other hand, says it is very trouble-
some to man in Italy.

A. psetidopunctipennis. — Incriminated by S. T. Darling [1910], who
found zygotes in four out of thirty-one insects fed on cases of the
malignant parasites, and also protospores in the glands of one insect.
He thinks that it is only slightly concerned in the transmission of
malarial fever in the Canal Zone. Occurs in Panama, Grenada and
New Mexico. Darling says that it is one of the two commonest
species in the Canal Zone, and breeds in most terrestrial waters.

A. tarsimaculata. — Incriminated by S. T. Darling [19 10], who
found zygotes in three out of five insects. Occurs in Panama and
South America. It is doubtful if this species is referable to the genus
Anopheles.



630 NOTES ON THE MALARIA-BEARING ANOPHELINES [Sect.

Cellia albimana. — Incriminated by S. T. Darling [19 10], who found
zygotes in thirty-six out of fifty insects and protoclasts and protospores
in three. Occurs in Panama, Brazil, British Guiana and in the West
Indies. Theobald (vol. iii. p. iii) states that Dr St George Gray
says that this Anopheline will bite at any time of the day or night ;
that the breeding-grounds are extremely varied, such as collections of
water, especially full of reeds ; and records also that he has found
larvae in brackish water in a lagoon shut off from the sea. He states,
however, that he has never found the larvae in water barrels or similar
receptacles in towns. Darling [1909, 19 10] says that this and pseudo-
punctipennts are the commonest mosquitos in the Panama Canal Zone,
and breed in almost any terrestrial water. It carries both malignant
and tertian malaria. Theobald, in his " Mosquitos of Jamaica," also
mentions rivers and large swamps and irrigation water, etc., as breeding-
places.

Cellia argyrotarsis. — S. T. Darling [19 10] says that a zygote was
found in one individual at Panama. Occurs in South America, the
West Indies, Panama, but appears not to be an important carrier.
From the records we gather that this is a less common species than
C. albimana, to which it is very similar (possibly only a variety).

Cellia pharoensis. — Newstead, Dutton and Todd [1907-1908] say
that " malaria parasites were seen to develop in this mosquito at
Boma." The insect was common at Ismailia, and has been reduced
simultaneously with malaria by operations since 1902 (section 53).
Pressat [1905] considers it to be malaria-bearing, but gives no evidence.
Occurs in East, West, Central and Northern Africa. It is recorded
also from Palestine. Theobald (vol. i., 1901) says that this mosquito
occurs during the month of April in Mashonaland and during January
in Egypt. I found the larvae in small swamps of almost fresh water
caused by seepage from the fresh-water canal at Ismailia, also in an
ornamental fountain and in water-cress beds. Not seen in sewage
cisterns. Willcocks say that it is a domestic mosquito, both in the
larval and adult stages. The adults enter houses in order to obtain
blood. In the open the females bite most viciously at sunset. The
water in which the larvae live may be brackish. Larvae, in various
stages of development, placed in water containing i'78% common salt,
die in less than twenty-four hours, but in water containing 1% common
salt they live from two to three days, but become sluggish in their
movements and appear to feed very little or not at all.



63] ADDENDA 631

Myzomyin cuUcifacies. — Incriminated by Stephens and Christophers
[25th April 1902]. Experimentally it carries quartan as far as the
protospores, and the other two species as far as the zygotes. In
nature frequently found to be infected in 4-6% at Mian Mir, and in
8'6% at Ennur, near Madras. Widely spread in India, where it is one
of the principal carriers. Breeds in pools in sandy river-beds, sluggish
irrigation channels, ditches, muddy tricklets, edges of rivers, etc.

Myzomyia fimesta.- — Proved by Ross, Annett and Austen [1900]
to carry quartan (one out of five insects) and mild tertian (one insect)
in West Africa. Further confirmed by Daniels [1900, p. 41] for
malignant. Stephens and Christophers [1901] found what appeared
to be this Anopheline in the Duars, in India, but Theobald subse-
quently did not admit the identity. Also observed by Button and
Todd, who report that malaria was seen to develop in it at Lusambo
[1907]. Occurs in Central, Western and Southern Africa, Sudan and
the Philippine Islands. Breeds in clear water in small springs and
edges of streams and rivers. Daniels says it cannot thrive in stagnant
waters, and that it may be found in marshes, but only where the
water is kept fresh by springs during heavy rainfall. Stephens and
Christophers say that it breeds in running waters, such as sluggish
irrigation channels, ditches, etc. It frequents houses and does not
leave them in the daytime. It feeds preferably at night, especially
in the early hours of the evening, but also at other times, even in
dayhght, both when free and in captivity.

Myzomyia hispaniola. — Incriminated by Sergent brothers [1905],
who dissected fourteen in 1904 without result, but in 1905 found
protospores in one of three dissected. Occurs in Spain, Teneriffe,
Algeria. The Sergents say that it abounds above all in valleys of
hilly, broken regions, but that it is found at a distance of some
kilometres in the plains in the debouche of these valleys, and add
that this Anopheline is like algeriensis but is little domestic. It
frequents houses only during the night, and does not remain after
having bitten its victim.

Myzomyia listoni. — Incriminated by Stephens and Christophers.
In this species protospores were readily found in the Bengal Duars,
but only in nature. Also by Kinoshita [1906], who says it can be
infected from 50 to 98% in Formosa. Occurs in India, Japan,
Federated Malay States, Inhabits running waters, swiftly - flowing



632 NOTES ON THE MALARIA-BEARING ANOPHELINES [Sect-

streams, sluggish irrigation channels, ditches, muddy tricklets and
edges of rivers.

Myzomyia lutzii. — Lutz [1903] says that he is convinced that this
mosquito carries malaria, but gives no further evidence. Oswaldo
Cruz (section 47) suspects it. Occurs in Brazil, British Guiana. Lutz
who paid considerable attention to the bionomics of this mosquito,
states that it is found widely distributed in various places along the
chain of mountains in the region of San Paolo and Santos. It breeds
in Bromilaceous plants.

Myzomyia rossii. — I failed in infecting this species in Calcutta in
1898-1899. Stephens and Christophers [1902] obtained experimentally
quartan and malignant zygotes in a few individuals. Never found
them infected in nature. They add that zygotes were found in nature
by Captain James, but sporozoits never in nearly 1,000 dissected.
W. T. de Vogel [1909] found zygotes in two insects bred from larvae
grown in salt water (i'3%), but not in those bred in fresh water.
C. A. Bentley also finds them in sea water; and failed to discover
the parasites in 425 dissected. Occurs in India, Ceylon, Malay States,
China, East Indies, Philippine Islands, and Java. Breeds in foul
puddles near habitations, clean clear water puddles without much
algae, and often turbid with suspended matter, boats and puddles
near houses, shallow muddy rivers, rice fields and cultivation of all
kinds. Theobald states that Mr E. E. Green {Tropical Agriculture,
vol. xxvii. p. 84, 1906) considers that it is a malaria carrier in parts
of Ceylon. He found the larvae breeding in a brackish lake at
Batticaloa, and also in the cocoanut estates, in the small water holes
used for watering young plants, and in chatties sunk at the roots of
plants. I have often thought that the comparative healthiness of
India may be due to the fact that this species ousts more dangerous
ones. Vogel's suggestion is interesting.^

Myzomyia turkhudi. — Incriminated by Stephens and Christophers
[1902]. Found to carry, experimentally, malignant tertian zygotes.
Occurs in India ; and found in large pools in quarries, stony and
shallow running waters.

Myzorhynchus barbirostris. — Proved by Stephens and Christophers
[1902] to develop malignant tertian experimentally. Their first experi-
ments had been negative. Occurs in India, Malay Peninsula. Stated

^ See also section 65 (8).



63l ADDENDA 633

to have been found at Old Calabar (?). Breeds in running waters
with much weed and algae, swamps, and deep water with much aquatic
vegetation.

Myzorhynchus sinensis. — Tsuzuki [1902] proved that the parasites
develop in all stages in this mosquito and that it causes infection
in a healthy man. Also that quartan parasites develop in many of
these mosquitos ; but he did not infect man with this species of
parasite. Kinoschita cultivated mild tertian parasites in seven out of
sixteen mosquitos, but quartan only at low temperatures, and malignant
parasites not at all. Occurs in Formosa, Japan, China, Federated
Malay States. Habits not described.

Myzorhynchus umbrosus. — Incriminated by Malcolm Watson. Ex-
periments not mentioned, but certainly a carrier. Occurs in the
Federated Malay States. Breeds principally in the flat country, but
not in flowing water. Abounds in thick jungle which it will not
willingly leave, so that removal of jungle round plantations reduces
malaria (section 57).

Nyssorhynchus annulipes. — Kinoshita [1906] developed malignant,
only at high temperature without oscillations, in three out of five
mosquitos. Occurs in South West Queensland, Australia, Formosa.
Donitz says it occurs in the Bismarck Islands. Breeds both in fresh
and in salt water (1,040 sp. gr.), and will live for a month on dates.

Myzorhynchus fuliginosus.- — Incriminated by Stephens and Christo-
phers [1902] and Adie [1903]. Stephens and Christophers say that
it occurred in Mian Mir in small numbers, and think that it is not
an active agent. They were able to infect it experimentally for
malignant tertian (zygotes), in one case sixty-six medium and ten small
zygotes. It developed also quartan up to zygotes, experimentally.
Occurs in India, Federated Malay States. Breeds in puddles and
pools with much algae, common in stream beds, water trickling over
rocks and lakes with weedy margins. Giles and Liston say that as
a rule this species prefers open water and sunlight.

Nyssorhynchus niaculipalpis. — Stephens and Christophers found
zygotes experimentally in this mosquito, which they called N. jamesii.
Occurs in India, Mauritius, Mashonaland. Scarce in Mauritius.
Breeding in marshes on sea coast, and at 1,400 feet above sea.

Nyssorhynchus stephensi. — Stephens and Christophers [1902]



634 NOTES ON THE MALARIA-BEARING ANOPHELINES [Sect.

developed zygotes of malignant tertian in it, experimentally. W. G.
Listen [1908] at Bombay found 25% infected with malaria.
C. A. Bentley, in the same city [19 10], found zygotes in 30 and
protospores in 8 out of 404 dissections. Occurs in many parts of
India. Breeds not only in open, clean terrestrial waters, but in deep
wells, iron cisterns, filter beds, garden tanks, and even small vessels
(section 59).

Nyssorhynchus theobaldia. — Stephens and Christophers [1902]
developed malignant tertian and quartan to zygotes, experimentally.
Occurs in India and Aden Hinterland. Breeds in running, stony and
shallow water with much weed and algae.

Nyssorhynchus willmori. — Incriminated by Malcolm Watson
(section 57). Details of experiments not given, but the insect appears
to be certainly a carrier in the hilly land in the Federated Malay
States. Also Daniels [1909]. Occurs in Federated Malay States,
Kashmir, Ceylon. Breeds in rapidly running streams, and cannot be
reduced by open drainage. The larvae were found in the clear puddles
formed by a spring at a height of 4,800 feet in Kashmir (Theobald,
vol. iii. p. 102).

Pyretophorus chaudoyei. — Billet states that this mosquito occurs
exclusively in places where there is much malaria in the Saharian Oases
in Algeria. He had no opportunity of finding zygotes in the insects,
but is sure that it is a carrier. Theobald (vol. iii. p. 70) says that
protospores have been found in it. Occurs in Algeria, Touggourt in
Algeria, and southern posts in Sahara. Breeds in water containing a
higher percentage of salt than normal sea water. Larvae are found in
little isolated pools or ponds, which under the influence of active solar
radiation greatly increase in the percentage of salt, giving at the end
of summer a percentage of 40 grammes per litre. (Foley and
Yvermault, Bull. Soc. Path. Exot., 1908, i. iii. pp. 172-173.)

Pyretophorus costalis. — Incriminated by Ross, Annett, Austen
[1900] to carry all three species in 27 out of 109 insects. Also by
Stephens and Christophers [1900] and by R. Ross in Mauritius
[1908]. Common and widely distributed over the African continent,
Madagascar, Reunion and Mauritius, but not in many neighbouring
islands which are non-malarious. Breeds in stagnant terrestrial waters
often without much weed. Appears to prefer the sea coast in Mauritius,
but was found in marshes up to 1,700 feet, where, though scanty, it
yet caused malaria. Breeds in pools in dried-up beds of hill streams,



63] ADDENDA 635

and in weedy margins, etc. In Mauritius prefers verandas to inner
rooms, and bites in the open, especially after 11 p.m. Takes shelter
from wind, but wanders far on windless nights.

Pyretophorus niyzomyiafacies {?). — Incriminated by Ed. Sergent
(section 52), who says that the protospores have been found in it.
Occurs in Algeria, especially in broken, hilly valleys.

Pyretophonis siiperpictus. — Grassi seems to think that it is a malaria
carrier [German translation, p. 219, 1901], but apparently gives no
evidence. Also Bignami and Bastianelli think that it is a carrier.
Occurs in the South of Italy, Spain, Greece, Algeria, and (?) Africa and
India. Carries Filaria immitis.

This concludes the Anophelines regarding which we have been
able to find any reliable experiments, but other species are mentioned
as being possible or certainly carriers, but without giving the evidence.
Thus Oswaldo Cruz (section 47) says that Cydoleppteroti mediopunctaium
Theobald and Lutz, Cydoleppieron intermedium Chagas, and Arri-
balzagia pseudomaculipes Chagas, " are undoubtedly carriers, as shown
experimentally." C Daniels, in a letter to me of the 17th June, says
that C. kochii is the constant in badly malarial suburbs in the Malay
States, and is absent or scanty in other places. A. treacheri [Stethomyia
fragilis Theobald) was the only mosquito which he could find in badly
malarial jungles. He adds that it was difficult to make any experi-
ments with these two species, as they will not live in confinement, and
says : "The trouble with these, as with several other mosquitos, is that
whilst you cannot absolutely include them because there is no positive
proof (experimentally), you cannot exclude them because there is
no negative proof (experimentally), and the circumstantial possible
evidence is strong." Laveran mentions two species which he calls
pursaii and martini as being carriers ; but the entomologists appear
not to accept them as species. Obviously much more exact work
requires to be done even on this point, which is so important for
public prevention.

C. S. Banks [1907] states in a lengthy paper that he cultivated
Plasmodia in Myzotnyia ludlowii Theobald, a Philippine Anopheline
which breeds in rivers and streams and also in sea water, and that he
inoculated a healthy person by its means ; but certain points in his
description suggest doubts as to the nature of the bodies which he
considered to be malaria parasites.



636 EXAMPLES OF LEGISLATION [Sect.

64. Examples of Legfislation. — Notes on legislation have
already been made in section 40 (4) and 59 (i). The object of such
legislation is to give the Health Department power (a) to enter private
premises (including houses, yards, gardens, lands and estates) in order
to search for mosquitos, flies, rats and other annoying or dangerous
vermin ; {b) to destroy such vermin when found ; and {c) to prevent
the breeding of them. Another object is to compel owners or
occupiers to take reasonable precautions against such breeding. But
at the same time the rights and properties of the owners or occupiers
have to be duly guarded. Most civilised malarious countries now
possess Health Acts, more or less based upon precedent, and these
contain clauses against "nuisances." But the word "nuisance" is
not always defined so as to include the breeding of vermin. In such
cases, then, it suffices merely to extend by act the definition of the
word — if possible, to include all vermin as well as mosquitos. It
was my duty in Mauritius to consider the local Ordinances carefully
for this purpose ; and I drafted the following clauses, which were
scrutinised and accepted by the Health Department and by the
Procureur- General, and then submitted to Government. (The first
clause here given was meant to be inserted in the definition of
"nuisance" contained in the Health Ordinance already in existence) : —

"All collections of water, rubbish, refuse, ordure, or other fluid or
solid substances, and all other conditions which permit, or facilitate,
or are likely to permit or facilitate, the breeding or multiplication of
animal or vegetable parasites of men or domestic animals, or of
insects or other agents which are known to carry such parasites, or
which may otherwise cause or faciHtate the infection of men or
domestic animals by such parasites.

" It shall be lawful for any sanitary authority, or any person
deputed by him in writing, to take immediate steps to destroy mosquito
larvae on any premises where they may be found, and to take such
action as may be necessary to render any pools or accumulations of
water unfit to be breeding-places for mosquitos.

"When such pools or accumulations of water lie on premises under
the charge of a public body or corporation, they shall not be dealt with
as above provided, unless due warning has been given in writing to
such public body or corporation, and no action has, within reasonable
delay — not to be less than twenty-four hours — been taken by them. In
such cases the expenditure incurred shall be borne by such public body
or corporation.

"Any owner or occupier who shall object to pools and collections
of water on his premises being dealt with as above provided, shall
within twenty-four hours submit his reasons to the sanitary authority,



64] ADDENDA 637

who, after enquiry, shall order such action to be taken as he shall
consider necessary to meet the provisions of this Ordinance. Should
the objections be rejected, the measures originally ordered shall be
carried out at the expen-^e of the said owner or occupier.

" It shall not be lawful for any owner or occupier to allow
mosquitos to breed on his premises, or to allow the presence on such
premises of any receptacle in which water is kept or may collect, unless
such receptacles are properly protected from access of mosquitos, or
unless the water they may contain is treated in such a way as to
prevent the breeding therein of mosquitos, nor shall such owner or
occupier allow on his premises any conditions which may, in any way,
be favourable to the breeding of mosquitos.

" Trees on all premises shall be at all times kept freely lopped to
the satisfaction of the sanitary authority by the owner or occupier,
and no trees shall be allowed to grow within 10 feet from any dwelling-
house. The sanitary authority may, in writing, direct the said owner
or occupier to carry out the above provision within a reasonable delay,
not to be less than forty-eight hours, and, in case of non-compliance,
the trees shall be lopped or cut down at the expense of the owner
or occupier.^

" It shall be lawful for the Director of the Health Department to
make such regulations as may be necessary to carry out the provisions
of this Ordinance.

" It shall be lawful for the Director of the Health Department, in
any case when the owner or occupier of any premises is liable for the
expense of any measures carried out on his premises, to relieve such
owner or occupier from the said expense, if, after enquiry, the Director
is satisfied that such owner or occupier is not in a position to incur
such expense. In such cases the expenditure shall be borne by
Government."

Clauses of penalties follow.

Sir Rubert Boyce gives [19 10] the laws passed in several West
Indian Colonies. From my experience (in 1896 I was a member of
a committee which reformed the municipal laws in the station of
Bangalore in India), I do not think that all of them are very good
or practicable ; and Boyce admits that they have often become a dead
letter. But I quote some of the clauses as examples.

" The occupier or owner of any premises shall keep such premises
free of stagnant water liable to breed mosquitos, and the presence of
mosquito larvae in any collection of water, wherever situated, shall be
sufficient evidence that such water is stagnant." Accepted in most of
the colonies — a simple and inclusive clause.

^ Some specific provision ought to be made to enable the sanitary authority to fill
up with concrete, or otherwise to treat, holes and hollows in trees which breed, or are
likely to breed, mosquitos ; and also to compel owners to cut insanitary undergrowth.



638 NOTES [Sect.

" The owner, or when required by the local authority, the occupier
of every lot of land situate in a town or village district shall effectually
drain the lot, and for that purpose shall (i) make such dams and
drains on the lot as may be necessary for effectually draining the lot ;
(2) fill up all irregularities on the surface of the lot, and adjust the
surface thereof, and if necessary raise the level of the surface thereof,
in such a manner (a) that the water received on the lot may flow into
the drains without obstruction, (d) that no water can remain on any
portion of the surface of the lot other than the drains, and (c) that
the surface of the lot does not remain swampy. Provided that where
the swampy state of any lot in any such district is occasioned by the
main drains into which the drains of the lot discharge not having a
sufficient outfall or a sufficient capacity to carry off all the water
discharged into them, the owner or occupier of the lot shall not be
liable under this section to raise the level of the surface of the lot
if the level of such surface is as high as the average height of the
level of the land surrounding such a lot for a distance of 20 roods
(? 20 rods = 110 yards. A rood is a square measure); and provided
that any owner may, with the consent of the local authority of the
district in which the lot is situated, have a pond on the lot." George-
town^ British Guiana.

" All vats, tanks, or other vessels shall be screened with mosquito-
proof wire-netting or other suitable material, so as to prevent the
entrance into or exit of mosquitos from such vats or tanks or other
vessels." British Guiana.

Such regulations should, if possible, be included in the general
Health Act, and not be left to the bye-laws of local bodies, which
are often very incompetent. In my opinion British administration
is generally much wanting in disciphne, and tends to neglect the
health and lives of the people for the sake of antiquated notions
about the liberty of the subject.

65. Notes. — I will conclude this book with some miscellaneous