is carried on often at considerable distances from the shore in small
* dug-out ' craft, formed on the old Carib pattern from the trunks of
cedar and gommier trees. These boats are very skilfully handled
and keep afloat in very rough weather. In spite of the abundance
of good fish existing in the neighbourhood of these islands, large
quantities of salt and dried fish, amounting to nearly 700 tons per
annum, are imported from the United States and Canada. It is
probable that a good deal more might be made of the fishery
productions of these seas if sufficient attention were devoted to them
by persons possessed of capital. The boats and appliances now in
use are of a very primitive character. The former are really too
small for deep-sea fishing, especially on the windward coasts, and
hence fish of great value are seldom caught. One of the most
striking and formidable of West Indian fish is the gigantic ray,
called the 'devil fish.' This fish sometimes measures twelve to
fifteen feet across, and weighs over a ton.
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282 The Colony of the Leeward Islands,
Indigenous and other Plants.
The indigenous plants are by no means exhaustively explored.
The most interesting islands from a botanical point of view are
those possessing elevated lands still covered with virgin forests. In
such situations, as on the mountains of Dominioa, and the peaks of
Montserrat, St. Eitts and Nevis, the native flora is for the most part
undisturbed. In the flatter islands, and in the lowlands of the
others, the vegetation is considerably altered by the incursions of
weeds from other countries. The low and undulating land between
the sea-shore and the foot of the hills has long been under cultiva-
tion, and when not at present occupied with regular plantations it
is covered with a * ruinate ' growth of an uninteresting character.
We may divide the different zones of vegetation into three, as
follows : viz. the littoral, the cultivated or scrubby, and the sylvan.
The litteral, which includes the vegetation of sandy sea-shores, of
swamps and of rocky cliffs, is the first met with. Numerous algsB
occupy shallow waters, and the poisonous manchioneel, the sea-side
grape, the coco-plum, and the naturalised cocoanut grow on sandy
beaches. Trailing on the ground are the goat's-foot convolvulus
{Ipomc^a), and the sea-side bean {Dolichos Lablab). In swampy
and moist places are the white and black mangrove, the dumb cane,
the swamp fern (Acrostichum a/tcreum), and numerous sedges and
grasses.^ On rocky cliffs are shrubs or trees of stunted growth with
leathery leaves, such as Clusia, Plumieriay Jacquinia. With these
are the keratto, or native agave, several species of wild pines
(Tillandsia, Pitcaimea), and numerous cacti. The Turk's-head
cactus is a striking object on rocky hills overlooking the sea. In
less rocky but equally dry places are several species of acacia,
logwood, tamarind, calabash, euphorbias, and weedy-looking crotons.
In the valleys and ravines, reaching from the sea inland, the
vegetation is richer, greener and more varied. Tall trees of wild
figs, galba, white-wood (Btioida), white cedar (Tecoma), mango
and bamboo. The two latter are introductions from the East
Indies, now widely distributed throughout the West Indies. Under
the shade of, or growing on such trees, are numerous small ferns,
begonias, climbing shrubs and aroids. The sylvan or true forest
region in the lowlands has been largely cleared for the cultivation of
the sugar-cane. It is now for the most part restricted to the hills.
There are still to be found majestic trees of iron-wood, cedar,
greenheart, yellow-wood (exported as West Indian satin-wood),
gommier, mahoe and locust. Thege arq ofteu covered wittl
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The Colony of the Leeward Islands. 288
lainriant climbing aroids, wild pines, orchids, and festooned with
bright- flowering creepers. Majestic tree-ferns spread their feathery
fronds in sheltered hollows, while broad-leaved baUsiers {Heliconia)
cover moist slopes or fringe the banks of pools and streams. The
luxuriance of tropical vegetation is seen to greatest advantage in
the mountains and ravines of Dominica and in the deep gullies on
the slopes of Mount Misery in St. Eitts. Of cultivated plants the
sugar-cane occupies the largest area. There are also scattered
cultivations of yams, sweet potatoes, tanniers, eddoes, pigeon-peas,
pumpkins, melons, tous-les-mois (Canna), arrowroot, turmeric,
peppers (chiUies), cassava, maize, guinea-corn. More systematic
cultivations, but at present not on a large scale, exist of cocoa,
coffee, limes, pine-apples, bananas, plantains. The chief fruit
trees at all cultivated are limes, shaddock, with grape-fruit or
forbidden-fruit, citron, lemon, bread-fruit, papaw, mango, akee,
cocoanut, star-apple, sapodilla or naseberry, avocado pear. In the
northern islands some of these are little known. Growing partially
wild are tamarind, guava, sour-sop, sweet-sop, mammee-apple,
cashew-nut, rose-apple, pomegranate, genip, damson-plum {ChrysO'
phyllum), bread-nut, hog-plum, jack-fruit.
History.
These islands were discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; they
became British at various times between that period and the end
of the seventeenth century. The Spaniards, who first claimed
them, had to give way to the French. The influence of the latter
is still clearly seen here and there in the language and religion,
as well as in the habits, of the people. Some of the most noted
exploits in naval history took place when we wrested these islands
from the French. Mr. Froude has described in eloquent words
how Rodney defeated the French off Dominica, and established the
British power in the West Indies. Early in the history of the
Leeward Islands they were governed, as now, by a govemor-in-chief,
residing at Antigua, with a lieutenant-governor in each island. An
old resident, writing of these islands in the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, remarks : ** Every one of the four great islands, viz.
Nevis, St. Christopher, Antigua, and Montserrat, have a particular
or private Governor, who presides over the Council and Assembly
both . . . and, in case of his sickness or death, the oldest Council-
man takes his place, and, indeed, is styled President always. But,
besides, we have a Governor-General who supersedes the private
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284 The Colony of the Leeward Islands.
GoYemor, and is chief wherever he happens to be ; and in case of
his death, his office devolves upon the Governor (or in case of his
death the President) and Council of Nevis until the King sends a
new one." The present confederation of the Leeward Islands is,
therefore, claimed to be only a return to the old order of things.
By it the several islands, no doubt, lose something of their in-
dividuahty, and in some respects their local circumstances do not
receive the continued attention of an able and skilful chief. On
the other hand, there are those who declare that the West Indies
require just now, not less confederation, but more confederation. It
is thought that they would then have far greater influence than at
present in the Councils of the Empire, would be able to give more
heart and permanency to measures calculated to improve their
special circumstances, and attract to them the men and capital
necessary for their welfare and prosperity.
The Leeward Islands, in a federal sense, are composed of five
presidencies, as follows : Antigua, with Barbuda and Redonda ;
Dominica; Montserrat; St. Kitts, with Nevis and Anguilla; and
the Virgin Islands. These are governed under the Federal Act of
1871, by one Executive and one Legislative Council under one
Governor. The Legislative Council consists of ten elective and ten
nominated members. The elective members are chosen by the
elective or non-official members of the local councils of the several
islands. The Federal Council meets once a year, usually at St.
John*s, Antigua, and the session lasts from two to four weeks.
In addition to the Federal Constitution, each island has its own
local Executive and Legislative Councils. The constitution and
mode of appointment or election to these councils vary somewhat
in the different islands. It is needless, however, to go into any
great detail here, as the subject has already been fully discussed
in an able paper read before this Institute by the late Hon. T. B. H.
Berkeley, C.M.G., in 1880. The Local Councils are composed of a
certain number of elected and nominated members, and are usually
presided over by the chief executive officer of the island, styled the
President or Commissioner. As in olden times, whenever the
Governor is present, he takes precedence of the President or Com-
missioner, and is chairman at all Council meetings.
Natubb of Population.
The original inhabitants of these islands were Caribs — a fierce
and warlike people, who made stout resistance against the early
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The Colony of the Leeward Islands. 235
European invaders. They were, however, gradually overcome, and
they disappeared so fast that soon none were left in any of the
islands, except in Dominica. At the close of the seventeenth century
Labat found this island chiefly occupied by Caribs, and these he >
describes as possessing great agility and courage, and addicted on
certain occasions to cannibal practices. When the French took
possession of the island the Caribs were driven to the mountains,
where they are still to be found, but in very diminished numbers.
The present Carib population of Dominica is estimated at 809.
They are intrepid and skilful fishermen, and hunt well. They
make wonderful waterproof baskets from the rind of a native reed-
Uke plant {Ischnosiphon). This is peculiarly an old Carib 'industry.
They make also fishing-pots, baskets for packing and for ornament,
and rough sacks from palm fronds ; their only attempt at agricul-
ture is to cultivate small patches of provision grounds in mountain
woods. They are of a quiet, retiring disposition, and prefer to live
in the woods rather than in towns.
Having exterminated or expelled the original inhabitants, the
early European settlers introduced negro slaves from the West
Coast of Africa to work on their sugar plantations. The supply of
slaves was kept up by periodical importations. The islands became
immensely prosperous, and wealth flowed from them to enhance the
riches of the Mother Country. The abolition of slavery came, and it
paralysed the whole social and economical system of the West Indian
Colonies. The liberated slaves in most cases refused to work for
wages ; they squatted on the abandoned sugar estates and settled
down as peasant proprietors of a more or less unthrifty character.
At this period there were two distinctly marked classes, the whites
and liberated blacks. In addition to these there was a certain
number of coloured people of black and white parentage. These
associated with the whites or blacks, according to their education
and social standing. At the present time the black people are
advancing in education and in civilisation ; and, as a consequence,
their wants are daily increasing, and they are more willing than
formerly to exert themselves in acquiring the means of satisfying
them. They are well adapted to the West Indian climate, and in
nearly all the islands their numbers are fast increasing. The future
of these islands is inextricably bound up with the destiny of the
black people we have introduced there, and it is our duty to provide
them with such political and social institutions as may form them
into loyal and prosperous communities.
The population of the Leeward Islands is now estimated at about
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286 The Colony of the Leeward Islands.
125,000. Of these, about 6 per cent, are white, 17 per cent,
coloured, and 77 per cent, black. The white population is composed
chiefly of proprietors and managers of estates, of the chief officers of
government, of ministers of religion, medical men, shop-keepers,
and skilled mechanics. The coloured population is dispersed
throughout all grades of society. It comprises men of considerable
influence and ability, and occupying high official positions. There
are also proprietors of estates, merchants, shop-keepers, and
clerks. The bulk of the black population is composed of small
proprietors and the labourers engaged in agricultural pursuits.
The negro women are strong and hard-working, and they con-
tribute an important portion of the labour available for light fieldt
work.
Climatic Conditions.
Formerly the cUmate of the West Indies had a bad name, owing
to the occurrence of epidemics, and the high death rate which
existed among the white troops quartered there. Of late years much
more attention has been devoted to sanitary matters, the white
troops are quartered in cooler and healthier locaUties, and the
former habits of intemperance and reckless exposure which charac-
terised them and other Europeans, have in a great measure passed
away. The present condition of the islands is certainly as favourable
to health as any portion of the tropics. Owing to the cooling
influence of the trade winds and their insular position, the heat for
the greater part of the year is scarcely felt. The hottest time of the
year is from May to September. During this period the trade wind
has lost its influence, and the heat in consequence is more severely
felt. These northern islands are, however, much cooler than the
southern, and the air is brighter and more invigorating. The annual
mean temperature during the day at sea-level is about 79° F. ; at
night it is lower, but the daily range is small. The rainy season
generally lasts from August to November, and from that time
onward the air is cool and pleasant. It is the climate of a warm
June in this country, with, however, cooler nights and a brighter air.
Refreshing showers fedl more or less all the year round, except during
the height of the dry season, when no rain may fall for some weeks.
As there is a considerable difl'erence in the climate of the several
islands, we shall notice these when we treat of each island in detail.
It may be well, however, to mention that for persons in delicate
health the West Indies offer a congenial home. It is not suited
for invalids requiring constant attention and unable to move abput,
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The Colony 0/ the Leeward Islands. 287
but to those who cannot face the rigour of a northern climate, and
are compelled to hve abroad, there is no part of the world where
they conld settle down and be more happy than m these islands.
There is such a combination of clear sky, of warmth, and freedom
from violent changes, that is most beneficial to deUcate constitutions.
Numbers of persons are now Hving active Uves in the West Indies who
would probably have died long ago had they remained in this country.
To people in good health who will adapt themselves to their sur-
roundings, and who will live temperately and judiciously, the West
Indies have no dangers pecuhar to them ; indeed, so far as recent
statistics and experience go, they are, allowing an occasional visit
to a cooler climate, as conducive to longevity as any part of the
world.
Dominica.
The account so far given of the islands has necessarily dealt
with them in a general way only.. In order, however, to become
more intimately acquainted with their circumstances, it is desirable
now to take the islands one by one, and point out any special
characteristics they may possess. I shall endeavour to be as brief
as possible ; but to secure this it will be impossible to enter upon a
large number of topics that in themselves are of an interesting
character, but which, unfortunately, lie outside the limits I have felt
compelled to assign to this paper.
The most important island, and the seat of the Federal Govern-
ment, is Antigua, and, following the normal course, this ought to
come first on our list. For convenience of reference, it will best
answer our purpose, however, if we take the islands in the order in
which they come on the map, and, beginning with Dominica, work
our way gradually to the northward.
Dominica, or Sunday Island, is the largest of the Leeward
group. It contains 291 square miles, and lies exactly midway
between the French islands of Martinique and Guadaloupe. It has
an estimated population of 29,500, which is at the rate of 101
persons for every square mile. Its bold, mountainous character
gives it a singularly picturesque appearance from the sea. In the
foreground are bold headlands, rising precipitously from the water's
edge, alternating with deep ravines or open valleys ; while at the
back are irregular masses of dark-wooded mountains reaching up to
the clouds. The coast-line is indented by numerous bays, into which
flow rivers that rise at the head of the interior valleys. There is
no part of Dominica that is not picturesque, or where rugged
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288 !the Colony of the Leeward Islands.
gtandeur and tropical luxuriance do not combine to attract the eye
and present a picture of singular beauty and magnificence. The
soil is of a dark brown or reddish loam, resting on broken volcanic
rock ; or sometimes of somewhat stiffer reddish loam, degenerating
below into a strong clay. In the valleys the soil is nearly always
of an alluvial character. It consists of a sandy loam, somewhat
gravelly in some locaUties, but giving place here and there to a
reddish, marly loam. All these soils are of a productive character,
and capable of yielding large crops of nearly every tropical produce.
The rainfall is regular and plentiful. At the town of Boseau it
is about 74 inches. On the Home, half a mile away, and at an
elevation of about 400 feet, the average rainfall for six years (1847-
1852) was 82 inches. In some locaUties it is as low as 50 inches ;
but the average for the whole island is possibly not less than
about 75 inches. Dominica has an abundance of streams and
rivulets, and water is available everywhere as a motive-power for
machinery and for sanitary purposes.
The rate of toortaUty in Dominica is 15*6 per thousand. This
is a very low rate indeed for the tropics; less than that of many
towns in this country.
The principal town is Roseau on the south-west, or leeward
coast. It has an open roadstead, with bold water close in shore.
The town is prettily situated at the entrance to the picturesque
Boseau Valley, and has a splendid background of dark-wooded
mountains.
There is an abimdant supply of water, and the town is very
healthy. Lately, the streets of Boseau have been relaid and the
drainage greatly improved.
St. Joseph, a small town farther to the northward, is also on
the west coast.
A good deal of the traffic of the island is carried on by means
of boats. The roads at one time were in a bad state, and many
places inland were inaccessible. Within the last two or three
years, under the active administration of Sir WilUam Haynes
Smith, roads have been extended, bridges built, and the means of
communication greatly improved. Nearly £80,000 have been thus
expended. It is in contemplation also to obtain the services of a
coasting steamer to make regular trips round the island, and connect
with the Boyal Mail and other steamers calling at Boseau.
A relatively small portion of the island is now under cultivation.
It contains, by survey, about 186,436 acres. A careful estimate
(after allowing for inaccessible land and for land that ought to be
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Tlie Colony of the Leeward Islands* 289
kept permanently under forest) has placed ono-balf of this (about
90,000 acres) as available for purposes of cultivation. Of this, only
about 50,000 acres have probably been under cultivation at any time
during the last hundred years. There retioain, therefore, at the
present time, about 40,000 acres of virgin forest land available for
cultivation, a good deal of which is in the hands of the Government.
As already shown, this land has good soil, is well watered, and
extends from nearly sea-level to elevations of about 2,500 or 8,000
feet. The temperature would range from 78® P. to about 83° P.
The present exports of Dominica give a tolerably good idea of
the present state of its agricultural industries. During the year
1889 the following articles, the produce and manufacture of the
Colony, were exported : —
Sugar, rum and molasses, ^£20,296 ; cacao, £12,298 ; Ume-juioa
(concentrated and raw), £8,061 ; fruits and vegetables, £1,868 :
coflEee (chiefly Liberian), £898 ; bay-leaves (derived from species oF
Pimenta), £514 ; bay oil, £1,485 ; dyes and dye-woods, £259 ; fire-
wood, £498. The total value of the Dominica exports during the
year above mentioned amounted to £47,825.
This is an extremely small return for so large an island. It
amounts to an average of only about £1*6 per head of population.
At Antigua the average is at the rate of £7*6 per head ; while at
Trinidad it reaches £11*7 per head. It is evident that the population
of Dominica, for want of capital and organisation, is largely engaged
in growing provisions to meet their daily wants. The population of
Dominica is nearly as large as that of Antigua ; but while the exports
of Antigua reach a total value of £266,521, the exports of Dominica
reach only about one-sixth of this (£47,825).
In the olden days, Dominica used to produce large quantities of
sugar and coffee. The sugar-estates have steadily declined since
emancipation, and the coffee industry has almost entirely disap-
pearedi It is probable that the "cofifee-fly*' did something to
discourage coffee-growing at one time ; but as this fly is present
everywhere in the West Indies, and attacks only coffee grown at a
low elevation, there is nothing to prevent a large and flourishing
coffee industry being estabUshed on the hills of Dominica. If ten
thousand acres were planted with coffee within the next ten or
twenty years, the export value of the produce would be about a
quarter of a million sterling. The labour required to cultivate so
large a tract of country is probably already in the island.
It has been already shown by a comparison of the exports that
only about one-sixth of the present population of Dominica is
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240 The Colony of the Leeward Islands.
effective. The remainder is compelled for want of capital to
spend its energies in merely supplying the means of subsistence.
For low elevations (between 200 feet and 1,000 feet), Liberian coffee
would be likely to succeed better than Arabian coffee. Dr. Nicholls
has a very successful plantation of Liberian at St. Aroment, yielding
large crops. This is not affected by the coffee-fly, and its extended
cultivation in Dominica is practically unlimited.
Cacao is an industry which has greatly increased of late years.
The exports have been as follows : 1839, 7,470 lbs. ; 1859, 62,761
lbs. ; 1879, 205,000 lbs. ; 1889, 787,595 lbs. There is room for
still greater expansion in cacao-growing, as the small cultivators
especially take a great interest in it. The curing of the produce is
still, however, defective.
Another very promising industry for Dominica is the production
of lime-juice. This is obtained from a thin-skinned variety of the
citron known as the West Indian lime {Citirus Medica, var. oMda).
This particular variety is apparently more widely spread in the
West Indies than in any other part of the world. The lime-juice
industry in Dominica was greatly encouraged, if not actually started,
by the late Dr. Imray. In 1870 the value of the lime-juice exported
was £83 ; in 1874 it had risen to £1,600 ; in 1889 it had increased
to £8,061. Dominica limes are large and very juicy. The trees
are the healthiest I have seen in the West Indies, and, within such
limits as are imposed by the commercial demand for the produce, it
deserves to be largely extended. A carefully-compiled return was
prepared for me by a lime-planter in Dominica, which I read and
submitted for criticism at a public meeting held at the Court-house
in Boseau on December 9 last. I am unable to publish this in full,
but I will give a brief summary of it. It appears that it takes about
one thousand pounds to purchase and establish 20 acres of good
land with lime-trees ; to build a house for the manager ; to erect a
mill, with copper boilers to concentrate the juice ; to pay for super-
intendence, and cover all expenses for seven years. At the end of
this, time the estate would yield at the rate of 40 hogsheads of con-
centrated lime-juice, worth £12 per hogshead. This would amount