_Whatever_, in the last sentence, is a compound pronoun, and is
equivalent to _that_ and _who. That_ is an adj. pron. belonging to
"man;" _who_ is nom. to "will deign;" and _ever_ is excluded from
the sentence in sense. See page 113. Parse these examples as they
are transposed, and you will find the analysis very easy.
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.
GOLD, NOT GENUINE WEALTH.
Where, thy true treasure? Gold says, "not in me;"
And, "not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor.
TRANSPOSED.
Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, "It is not in me;" and the
Diamond says, "It is not in me." Gold is poor.
SOURCE OF FRIENDSHIP. - DR. YOUNG.
Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find
A friend, but what has found a friend in thee.
TRANSPOSED.
Lorenzo, repress thou pride; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in him
who has already found a friend in thee.
TRUE GREATNESS. - POPE.
Who noble ends by noble means obtains,
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains,
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed.
TRANSPOSED.
That man is great indeed, let him _to_ reign like unto good Aurelius, or
let him _to_ bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noble
means; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble ends by
noble means, smiles in exile or in chains.
INVOCATION. - POLLOK.
Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom
All things seem as they are, inspire my song;
My eye unscale: me what is substance teach;
And shadow what, while I of things to come,
As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase
Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant.
TRANSPOSED.
Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom all things seem to be as they
really are, inspire thou my song; and unscale thou my eyes: teach thou
_to_ me the thing which is substance; and teach thou _to_ me the thing
which is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, as one sings
of things which are past rehearsing. Grant thou _to_ me thought and
phraseology which shall severely sift out the whole idea.
THE VOYAGE OF LIFE.
How few, favored by ev'ry element,
With swelling sails make good the promised port,
With all their wishes freighted! Yet ev'n these,
Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain.
Free from misfortune, not from nature free,
They still are men; and when is man secure?
As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years
Beats down their strength; their numberless escapes
In ruin end: and, now, their proud success
But plants new terrors on the victor's brow.
What pain, to quit the world just made their own!
Their nests so deeply downed and built so high! -
Too low they build, who build beneath the stars.
TRANSPOSED.
How few persons, favored by every element, safely make the promised port
with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freighted! Yet even these
few persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishes
freighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet
(_though_ and _yet_, corresponding conjunctions, form only _one_
connexion) they are not free from the course of nature, for they still
are men; and when is man secure? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm is
to the mariner. - The rush of years beats down their strength; (_that is,
the strength of these few_;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin:
and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor's
brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have made
it to be their own world; when their nests are built so high, and when
they are downed so deeply! - They who build beneath the stars, build too
low for their own safety.
REFLECTIONS ON A SCULL. - LORD BYRON.
Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps.
Is that a temple, where a God may dwell?
Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell!
Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall,
Its chambers desolate, and portals foul;
Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall,
The dome of thought, the palace of the soul.
Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,
The gay recess of wisdom and of wit,
And passion's host, that never brooked control.
Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ,
People this lonely tower, this tenement refit?
TRANSPOSED.
Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple,
where a God may dwell? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered
cell! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall,
and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals: - yes, this scull
was once ambition's airy hall; (_it was_) the dome of thought, the
palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,
the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never
brooked control. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists
have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refit this
tenement?
For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the
English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted,
that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisition
the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend
more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable that
your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis
of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you
ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just
presented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose.
Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax,
you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you
have the subject-matter already stored in your mind.
* * * * *
LECTURE XIV.
OF DERIVATION.
At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that Etymology
treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, important as it
is, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar.
In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequently
agitated; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtless
be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word
is derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn
back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in
the PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
1. Nouns are derived from verbs.
2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs.
3. Adjectives are derived from nouns.
4. Nouns are derived from adjectives.
5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives.
1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes "lover;" from
"to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver," &c.
In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to
determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from
the verb, _viz_. "Love, to love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to
sleep; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act," &c.
2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs;
as, from the noun _salt_, comes "to salt;" from the adjective _warm_,
"to warm;" and from the adverb _forward_, "to forward." Sometimes they
are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant; as,
from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding _en_; as, from "length, to
lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten;
bright, to brighten."
3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner: adjectives
denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding _y_; as, from "Health,
healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c.
Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are
derived from nouns by adding _en_; as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden;
wool, woollen," &c.
Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding _ful_;
as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," &c.
Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are
derived from nouns by adding _some_; as, from "Light, lightsome;
trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome," &c.
Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding _less_; as,
from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, joyless," &c.
Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding _ly_; as,
from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c.
Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns by
adding _ish_ to them; which termination when added to adjectives,
imports diminution, or lessening the quality; as, "White, whitish;" i.e.
somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency
to a character; as, "Child, childish; thief, thievish."
Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination
_able_; and those adjectives signify capacity; as, "Answer, answerable;
to change, changeable."
4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the
termination _ness_; as, "White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimes
by adding _th_ or _t_, and making a small change in some of the letters;
as, "Long, length; high, height."
5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding _ly_, or
changing _le_ into _ly_; and denote the same quality as the adjectives
from which they are derived; as, from "base," comes "basely;" from
"slow, slowly;" from "able, ably."
There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it
would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. The
primitive words of every language are very few; the derivatives form
much the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here.
Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations
_hood_ or _head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment_, and _age_.
Nouns ending in _hood_ or _head_, are such as signify character or
qualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c.
Nouns ending in _ship_, are those that signify office, employment,
state, or condition; as, "Lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some
nouns in _ship_ are derived from adjectives; as, "Hard, hardship," &c.
Nouns which end in _ery_, signify action or habit; as, "Slavery,
foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives; as,
"Brave, bravery," &c.
Nouns ending in _wick, rick_, and _dom_, denote dominion, jurisdiction,
or condition; as, "Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c.
Nouns which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession; as,
"Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in _ment_ and _age_, come
generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit; as,
"Commandment," "usage."
Some nouns ending in _ard_, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and
denote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard."
Some nouns have the form of diminutives; but these are not many. They
are formed by adding the terminations _kin, ling, ing, ock, el_, and the
like; as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock;
cock, cockerel," &c.
OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES.
I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of
Latin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as
prefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be better
qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition
of which they enter, and of which they form a material part.
I. LATIN PREFIXES.
_A, ab, abs_ - signify from or away; as, _a-vert_, to turn from;
_ab-ject_, to throw away; _abs-tract_, to draw away.
_Ad_ - to or at; as, _ad-here_, to stick to; _ad-mire_, to wonder at.
_Ante_ - means before; as, _ante-cedent_, going before.
_Circum_ - signifies round, about; as, _circum-navigate_, to sail round.
_Con, com, co, col_ - together; as, _con-join_, to join together;
_com-press_, to press together; _co-operate_, to work together;
_col-lapse_, to fall together.
_Contra_ - against; as, _contra-dict_, to speak against.
_De_ - from, down; as, _de-duct_, to take from; _de-scend_, to go down.
_Di, dis_ - asunder, away; as, _di-lacerate_, to tear asunder;
_dis-miss_, to send away.
_E, ef, ex_ - out; as, _e-ject_, to throw out; _ef-flux_, to flow out;
_ex-clude_, to shut out.
_Extra_ - beyond; as, _extra-ordinary_, beyond what is ordinary.
_In, im, il, ir_ - (_in_, Gothic, _inna_, a cave or cell;) as, _in-fuse_,
to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns,
commonly reverse their meaning; as, _in-sufficient, im-polite,
il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute_.
_Inter_ - between; as, _inter-pose_, to put between.
_Intro_ - within, into; _intro-vert_, to turn within; _intro-duce_, to
lead into.
_Ob, op_ - denote opposition; as, _ob-ject_, to bring against; _op-pugn_,
to oppose.
_Per_ - through, by; as, _per-ambulate_, to walk through; _per-haps_, by
haps.
_Post_ - after; as, _post-script_, written after; _post-fix_, placed
after.
_Præ, pre_ - before; as, _pre-fix_, to fix before.
_Pro_ - for, forth, forward; as, _pro-noun_, for a noun; _pro-tend_, to
stretch forth; _pro-ject_, to shoot forward.
_Præter_ - past, beyond; as, _preter-perfect_, pastperfect;
_preter-natural_, beyond the course of nature.
_Re_ - again or back; as, _re-peruse_, to peruse again; _re-trade_, to
trade back.
_Retro - _backwards; as, _retro-spective_, looking backwards.
_Se_ - aside, apart; as, _se-duce_, to draw aside.
_Sub_ - under; as, _sub-scribe_, to write under, or _sub-sign_.
_Subter_ - under; as, _subter-fluous_, flowing under.
_Super_ - above or over; as, _super-scribe_, to write above;
_super-vise_, to overlook.
_Trans_ - over, beyond, from one place to another; as, _trans-port_, to
carry over; _trans-gress_, to pass beyond.
II. GREEK PREFIXES.
_A_ - signifies privation; as, _anonymous_, without name.
_Amphi_ - both or two; as, _amphi-bious_, partaking of both or two
natures,
_Anti_ - against; as, _anti-masonry_, against masonry.
_Dia_ - through; as, _dia-meter_, line passing through a circle.
_Hyper_ - over; as, _hyper-critical_, over or too critical.
_Hypo_ - under, implying concealment or disguise; as, _hypo-crite_, one
dissembling his real character.
_Meta - _denotes change or transmutation; as, _meta-morphose_, to change
the shape.
_Para_ - contrary or against; as, _para-dox_, a thing contrary to
received opinion.
_Peri_ - round about; as, _peri-phrasis_, circumlocution.
_Syn, syl, sym_ - together; as, _syn-tax_, a placing together; _syn-od_,
a meeting or coming together; _syl-lable_, that portion of a word which
is taken together; _sym-pathy_, fellow-feeling, or feeling together.
RULES OF SYNTAX,
WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and
government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.
SYNTAX consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_.
CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender,
person, number, or case.
For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53.
For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and
members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167.
The principal parts of a simple sentence are the _nominative_ or
subject, the _verb_ or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation,
and the _object_, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A
wise _man governs_ his _passions_." In this sentence, _man_ is the
subject; _governs_, the attribute; and _passions_ the object.
A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a
part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.
ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid
disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas
concisely, and with strength and elegance.
In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed
form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary
consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know
are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this
work, you must look over the whole.
You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in
false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors
without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should
be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are
erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages.
RULE I.
The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns in the _singular_ number only,
individually or collectively; as, "_A_ star, _an_ eagle, _a_ score, _a_
thousand."
RULE II.
The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the _singular_ or
_plural_ number; as, "_The_ star, _the_ stars; _the_ hat, _the_ hats."
NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by
the use or omission of the article _a_. If I say, "He behaved with
_a_ little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He
behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the
former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him.
When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and
mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say,
"There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most
of them.
2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of _every_ or
_each_; as, "They cost five shillings _a_ dozen;" that is, '_every_
dozen.'
"A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds _a_ year!"
that is, '_every_ year.'
3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various
qualities of things individually different, though alike in name,
the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to
the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "_A_
black and _a_ white calf," signifies, A black _calf_, and a white
_calf_; but "_A_ black and white calf," describes the two colors of
_one_ calf.
RULE III.
The nominative case governs the verb; as, "_I_ learn, _thou_ learnest,
_he_ learns, _they_ learn."
RULE IV.
The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The
bird _sings_, the birds _sing_, thou _singest_."
NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have
a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is,
Awake _ye_; arise _ye_.
2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be
considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with
that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin _is_
death; His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion _were_
dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_."
EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.
Frequent commission of sin harden men in it.
Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties.
So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found.
The sincere is always esteemed.
Not one of them are happy.
What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them?
Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give
consolation.
The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of
nature; are without limit.
A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us.
Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve
him.
In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.
O thou, my voice inspire,
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.
_Note_ 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind,
And never, never be to Heaven resigned?
He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great
abilities to manage the business.
_Note 2_. The crown of virtue is peace and honor.
His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.
RULE V.
When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the
nominative case _independent_; as, "_Plato_, thou reasonest well;" "Do,
_Trim_, said my uncle Toby."
NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it.
2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the
_first_ person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun
of the _second_ or _third_ person; as, "Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O!
_virtue_."
RULE VI.
A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of
the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as,
"_Shame being lost_; all virtue is lost;" "The _sun being risen_, we
travelled on."
NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and
independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as,
"To whom thus _Adam_;" that is, _spoke_.
FALSE SYNTAX.
Him Destroyed,
Or won to what may work his utter loss,
All this will follow soon.
_Note_. - Two substantives, when they come together, and do not
signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.
Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted
as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.
RULE VII.
Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are
put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "_Paul_, the _apostle;_"
"_Joram_, the _king;_" "_Solomon_, the _son_ of David, _king_ of Israel,
wrote many proverbs."
NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as,
"The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library - _(which
was) a misfortune_ that greatly depressed him."
FALSE SYNTAX.
We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things.
The pronoun _he_ in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative
case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and
put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective
case, _him_, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the
following.)
I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited.
They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.
It was John, him who preached repentance.
Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were
both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of
Independence.
Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is
variously described by historians.
RULE VIII.
Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number,
connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and
pronouns, agreeing with them in the _plural_; as, "Socrates _and_ Plato
_were_ wise; _they_ were eminent _philosophers_."
NOTE 1. When _each_ or _every_ relates to two or more nominatives in
the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must
agree with each of them in the singular; as, "_Every_ leaf, _and
every_ twig, _and every_ drop of water, _teems_ with life."
2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another
noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the
verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity
with humility, _renders its_ possessor truly amiable;" "The General,
also, in conjunction with the officers, _has_ applied for redress."
FALSE SYNTAX.
Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large
quantities.
Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb _grow_
is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives,
"coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the
copulative conjunction, _and_; therefore the verb should be plural,
_grow_; and then it would agree with coffee _and_ sugar, according to
Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun _it_, as it represents both the
nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, _they_, agreeably to
Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar _grow_ in
the West Indies: _they are_ exported in large quantities."
Time and tide waits for no man.
Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.
Life and health is both uncertain.
Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.
The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean,
affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.
What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think
you have no need of assistance?
Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.
Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?
Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind
it continually upon thy heart.
Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes
of the judicious.
There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists,
which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect.
EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE.
Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.
Not proper; for, although _and_ couples things together so as to present
the whole at one view, yet _every_ has a contrary effect: it distributes
them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. _Were_
numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "_was_ numbered," in the
singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.)
When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and
every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light.
RULE IX.
Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number,
connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and
pronouns, agreeing with them in the _singular_; as, "Neither John _nor_
James _has_ learned _his_ lesson."
NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in
person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou _or_ I
_am_ in fault; I _or_ thou _art_ to blame; I, _or_ thou, _or_ he,
_is_ the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am
to blame or thou art," &c.
2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and
a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun,
which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither
poverty _nor riches_ were injurious to him;" "I _or_ they were
offended by it."
Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided.
FALSE SYNTAX.
Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.
The verb, _have_ caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the
plural, because it expresses the action, not of _both_, but of either
the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the
singular, _has_ caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance _or_
negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.)
A circle or a square are the same in idea.
Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry.
Neither of them are remarkable for precision.
Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely
as they are moved.
When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the
sincerity of friendship is proved.
Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own
hands.
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for
they may be thy own lot.
The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy.
RULE X.
A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying _unity_ of idea,
generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _singular_; as,
"The _meeting was_ large, and _it_ held three hours."
NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page.
FALSE SYNTAX.
The nation are powerful.
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.
The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The
flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the
shepherd's care.
That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble.
RULE XI.
A noun of multitude, conveying _plurality_ of idea, must have a verb or
pronoun agreeing with it in the _plural_; as, "The _council were_
divided in _their_ sentiments."
FALSE SYNTAX.
My people doth not consider.
The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good.
The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the
business to the general meeting.
The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.
RULE XII.
A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it
possesses; as, "_Man's_ happiness;" "_Its_ value is great."
NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the
possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only;
as, "The _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal; The _bishop of Landaff's_
excellent book; The _captain of the guard's_ house." This usage,
however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally
convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is _the
governor of Ohio's_ house!"
2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow
each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally
annexed to the last only; as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake;
_John_ the _Baptist's_ head; The canal was built in consequence of
_De Witt Clinton_ the _governor's_ advice."
But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed,
the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and
understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old
_patron_ and _benefactor_."
3. _Its_, the possessive case of _it_, is often improperly used for
_'tis_, or, _it is_; as, "_Its_ my book: _Its_ his," &c.; instead
of, _"It is_ my book; or, _'Tis_ my book; _It is_ his; or, _'Tis_
his."
4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the
possessive case, as, "In case of his _majesty's dying_ without
issue, &c.; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c.; I remember
_its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At _my coming_ in he said,"
&c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be
considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28.
5. Phrases like these, "A work of _Washington Irving's_; A brother
of _Joseph's_; A friend of _mine_; A neighbor of _yours_," do not,
as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two
possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (_out
of_, or, _among the number of) Washington Irving's works_; that is,
One of the works of _Washington Irving_; One of the brothers _of
Joseph_; One friend _of my friends_; One neighbor of _your
neighbors_."
FALSE SYNTAX.
Homers works are much admired.
Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord.
James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829.
_Note_ 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer
great calamities.
This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation.
_Note_ 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production.
The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.
_Note_ 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently.
Much depends on this rule being observed.
The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay
it before the council.
RULE XIII.
Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in
_gender_ and _number_; as, "_John_ writes, and _he_ will soon write
well."
NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun,
is always _plural in form_; therefore the verb connected with it
should be plural; as, "My friend, you _were_ mistaken." See pages
and
FALSE SYNTAX
Every man will be rewarded according to their works.
Incorrect, because the pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender or
number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13,
is violated. _Their_ should be _his_; and then the pronoun would be of
the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with _man_, according to
Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.)
An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience.
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob.
Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in
the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.
No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.
_Note_. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of
censure.
Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was
you from the defendant?
RULE XIV.
Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in _gender_, _person_,
and _number_; as, "Thou _who lovest_ wisdom;" "I _who speak_ from
experience."
NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of
different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person
with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man
_who command_ you;" or, "I am the man _who commands_ you." The
meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear,
if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the _man_."
When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the
preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence;
as, "I am the _Lord, that maketh_ all things; _that stretcheth_
forth the heavens alone; _that spreadeth_ abroad the earth by
myself," &c.
FALSE SYNTAX.
Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it.
The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost
their lives by this means.
Thou great First Cause, least understood!
Who all my sense confined.
_Note, 2d part_. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and
brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.
RULE XV.
The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative
comes between it and the verb; as, "The master _who_ taught us, was
eminent."
FALSE SYNTAX.
If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish
him.
This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.
RULE XVI.
When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative
is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own
member of the sentence; as, "He _whom_ I _serve_, is eternal."
NOTE 1. _Who, which, what_, the relative _that_, and their
compounds, _whomever, whomsoever_, &c., though in the objective
case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He _whom_ ye _seek_,
has gone hence."
2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates,
either expressed or implied; as, "_Who_ steals my purse, steals
trash;" that is, _he_ who.
3. The pronouns _whichsoever, whatsoever_, and the like, are
sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the
corresponding nouns; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ the _king_ cast
his eyes," &c.
4. The pronoun _what_ is sometimes improperly used instead of the
conjunction _that;_ as, "He would not believe but _what_ I was in
fault." It should be "but _that_," &c.
FALSE SYNTAX.
That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.
Not proper, because _who_, which is the object of the action expressed
by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to
be _whom_, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem,
according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:) - and, also, according to Rule
20. "That is the friend _whom_ I sincerely esteem."
They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.
From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be
estimated.
He is a man who I greatly respect.
Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and
who we ought to be grateful to.
They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of
fortune.
Who did you walk with?
Who did you see there?
Who did you give the book to?
RULE XVII.
When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the
word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its
_subsequent_, which subsequent must agree in _case_ with the
interrogative; as, "_Whose_ book is that? _Joseph's;" "Who_ gave you
this? _John_."
NOTE. Whether the interrogative _really refers_ to a subsequent or
not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree
in case with the interrogative.
FALSE SYNTAX.
Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a
bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.
Who walked with you? My brother and him.
Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.
RULE XVIII.
Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as,
"He is a _good_, as well as a _wise_ man."
NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am
_miserable; He_ is _industrious_."
2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in
number with their adjectives, when of the _cardinal_ kind; as, "Ten
_feet_; Eighty _fathoms_." But some anomalous and figurative
expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of _forty
sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle_."
3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or
to a part of a sentence; as, "_To see_ is _pleasant_; To be blind is
_unfortunate_; To die for our country is _glorious_."
4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other
adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of
things in connexion with the action by which that quality is
produced; as, "_Red hot_ iron; _Pale blue_ lining; _Deep sea-green_
sash; The apples boil _soft_; Open your hand _wide_; The clay burns
_white_; The fire burns _blue_; The eggs boil _hard_."
5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is
understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as,
"In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.
6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify;
as, "A tract of _good_ land."
7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not
literally admit of comparison; such as, _more impossible, most
impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect_, &c. See REMARKS on
adjectives, page 76.
8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects,
it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are
compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the
_taller_ of the two; Her specimen is the _best_ of the three."
FALSE SYNTAX.
_Note_ 2. The boat carries thirty tun.
The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.