He touched the stun which I shew He touched the _stone_ which I
him, an di guess it made him sithe, _showed_ him and it made him
for twas cissing hot. _sigh_, for _it was hissing_ hot.
Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for Go, Nathaniel, and cut a _sapling_,
to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter to make a _lever of_. I _was about_
go, daddy. to go, or _intending_ to go
_immediately_, father.
Where shell I dump my cart, square? Where _shall_ I _unload_ my cart?
Dump it yender. Whats the heft of _Yonder_. _What is_ the _weight_
your load? of your load?
When ju git hum from Hafford? When _did you return from
A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye? Hartford_? A _fortnight_ ago. _It
Ju see my Danel, whose sot up a is possible! Did_you see my _son
tarvern there? No. Hede gone afore Daniel, who has opened a public
I got there. O, the pesky criter! house_ there? No. _He had left
Hele soon be up a stump. before_ I _arrived_ there. O, the
_paltry fellow! He will_ soon _come
to naught._
My frinds supurb mansion is _My friend's_ superb mansion is
delightfully sitewated on a nate-eral delightfully _situated_ on a
mound of considerable hithe. It hez _natural_ mound of considerable
a long stoop in front; but it is furder _height_. It _has_ a long _porch_
from the city than I'de like my hum. in front; but it is _farther_ from
the city than _I would_ like to
_reside_.
I know'd the gal was drownded, and I _knew_ the _girl had been
I tell'd the inquisitdoners, that ize drowned_, and I _told_ the _jury
nither geestin nor jokin about it; but of inquest_, that _I was_
if they'd permit me to give em my _not jesting_ about it; but, _by
ideze, they'd obleege me. So I permitting_ me to _give them_ my
parsevered, and carried my pinte. You _view of the subject_, they _would
don't say so. Be you from Barkshire? oblige_ me. So, I _persevered_,
I be. Neow I swan! if I aint clean and _gained_ my _point. Indeed!
beat. Are_ you from _Berkshire_? I _am.
Really_!I _am surprised_.
You baint from the Jarseys, be ye? _Are_ you from _New Jersey_? Yes,
Yes. Gosh! then I guess you kneow Then I _presume_ you _know how_
heow to tend tarvern. to tend _a tavern_.
IN PENNSYLVANIA. CORRECTED
I seen him. Have you saw him I _saw_ him. Have you _seen_ him?
Yes, I have saw him wunst; and that Yes, _once_; and that was before
was before you seed him. you _saw_ him.
I done my task. Have you did I _have_ done my task. Have you
yours? No, but I be to do it. _done_ yours? No, but I _must_.
I be to be there. He know'd me. I _shall_ be there; or, I _must_
be there. He _knew_ me.
Leave me be, for Ime afear'd. _Let_ me be, for I _am afraid_.
I never took notice to it. I never took notice _of_ it: or,
better thus, I never _noticed_ it.
I wish I haddent did it; howsumever, I wish I _had not done_ it:
I don't keer: they cant skeer me. _however, I disregard them_. They
_cannot scare_ me.
Give me them there books. Give me _those_ books.
He ort to go; so he ort. He _ought_ to go, _really_.
No he orten. He _ought_ not.
Dont scrouge me. Don't _crowd_ me.
I diddent go to do it. I _did not intend_ to do it.
Aint that a good hand write? _Is not_ that _beautiful writing_?
Nan? I know'd what he meant, but _What_? I _knew_ what he meant, but
I never let on. I _kept that to myself_.
It is a long mile to town. Ah! I It is a _little over_ a mile to
thought 'twas unle a short mile. town. Ah! I _supposed it to be less
than_ a mile.
IRISH. CORRECTED.
Not here the day; he went till _He is_ not here to-day. He went
Pittsburg. _to_ Pittsburg.
Let us be after pairsing a wee bit. Let us _parse_ a _little_.
Where did you loss it? Where did you _lose_ it?
MD. VA. KY. OR MISS. CORRECTED.
Carry the horse to water. _Lead_ the horse to water; or,
water the horse.
Tote the wood to the river. _Carry_ the wood to the river.
Have you focht the water? Have you _fetched_, or _brought_,
the water?
I've made 200 bushels of corn this I _have raised_ 200 bushels of corn
year. this year.
He has run against a snag. He has _got into difficulty_.
Is that your plunder, stranger? Is that your _baggage, sir_?
He will soon come of that habit. He will soon _overcome_, or _get
rid of_, that habit.
I war thar, and I seen his boat was I _was there_, and I _saw that_ his
loadend too heavy. boat was too _heavily laden_, or
_loaded_.
Whar you gwine. _Where are_ you _going_?
Hese in cohoot with me. _He is_ in _partnership_ with me.
Did you get shet of your tobacca? Did you _get rid_, or _dispose_
of, your _tobacco_?
Who hoped you to sell it? Who _helped_ you to sell it?
PROSODY.
PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages
of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence,
in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution.
Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the true
pronunciation of words, comprising _accent_, _quantity_, _emphasis_,
_pause_, and _tone_; and the second, the laws of _versification_.
_Accent_. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a
particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard
than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word _presúme_,
the stress of the voice must be on the letter _u_ and the second
syllable, _sume_, which syllable takes the accent.
Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. For
the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a
secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the
principal accent; as, _'tes ti mo' ni'al_, _a ban'don 'ing._
_Quantity_. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied
in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short.
A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which
causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following
letters; as, "Fāll, bāle, mōōd, hōūse, fēature."
A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes
the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ănt,
bŏnnĕt, hŭngĕr."
A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in
pronouncing it; thus, "māte" and "nōte" should be pronounced as
slowly again as "măt" and "nŏt."
_Emphasis_. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to
lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the
sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a
particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress.
Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution.
_Pauses_. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total
cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a
measurable space of time.
_Tones_. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting
in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound
which we employ in the expression of our sentiments.
Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affect
sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse.
PUNCTUATION.
PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or
parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the different
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.
The _Comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _Semicolon_, a pause
double that of the comma; the _Colon_, double that of the semicolon; and
the _Period_, double that of the colon.
Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted
with the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction of
members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This
custom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read
their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After
the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction
were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a
considerable time.
As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while
manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of
conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the
art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the points
did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration,
were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now
used, became established, when learning and refinement had made
considerable progress.
As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical
construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part
of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of
exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary
taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly
merit our particular attention.
The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation,
and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is
established by the single fact, that _the meaning of a sentence is often
totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points_. To
illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might be
selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurton
having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:"
"Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age,
has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up
about six feet high, &c." Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to
sea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with a
short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c."
Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him
to understand what is meant by an _adjunct_, _a simple sentence_, and a
_compound sentence_.
An _adjunct_ or _imperfect phrase_ contains no assertion, or does not
amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious of
praise;" "in the pursuit of commerce." - For the definition of a
sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119.
When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same
manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is
compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are
adjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their _health_ and _fortune_, at the
_shrine_ of vanity, _pride_, and _extravagance_." But when the adjuncts
are connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is
simple; as, "Grass of an excellent _quality_, is produced in great
_abundance_ in the northern regions of our country."
COMMA.
RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be
separated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with living
creatures."
_Exercises in Punctuation_. - Idleness is the great fomenter of all
corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his
way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.
RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is
accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a
comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste _of the present
age_, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English
language;" "Too many _of the pretended friendships of youth_, are mere
combinations in pleasure."
_Exercises_. - The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction
to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a
real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society
serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.
RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence,
is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be
distinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, _in many
respects,_ very imperfect. It is, _therefore,_ not much approved." But
when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better to
omit the comma; as, "Flattery is _certainly_ pernicious;" "There is
_surely_ a pleasure in beneficence."
_Exercises_. - Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness
is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your
failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and
ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience
disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed
behavior can always hide the real character.
RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition when
accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My
_son_, give me thy heart;" "Dear _Sir_, I write to express my gratitude
for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my _friends_, for your
many favors;" "_Paul_, the _apostle_, of the Gentiles, was eminent for
his zeal and knowledge;" "The _butterfly_, _child_ of the summer,
flutters in the sun."
But if _two_ nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if
they form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, _"Paul_
the _apostle_, suffered martyrdom;" "The _statesman Jefferson_, wrote
the declaration of Independence."
_Exercises_. - Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all
generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study.
Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of
vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the
balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great
Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch
Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety.
RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute
with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and,
generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple
sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as,
"_His father dying_, he succeeded to the estate;" "_To confess the
truth_, I was in fault;" "The king, _approving the plan_, put it in
execution;" "He, _having finished his academical course_, has returned
home, _to prosecute his professional studies_."
_Exercises_. - Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To
enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His
talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him
conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and
constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose
one family assembled under the eye of one common Father.
RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing
commas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and the
dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of
serious reflections."
Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs,
connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated by
commas; as, "The husband, wife,[11] and children,[12] suffered extremely;"
"In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;"
"David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, and
loving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" "Success generally
depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we
undertake."
[11] The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so
obvious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any _writer_,
possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I
am bold to affirm, that it is observed by every correct reader and
speaker; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated
by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who are
influenced by their pernicious example; thus, "The head, the heart
and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing
good." Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is
understood? It would be doing no greater violence to the principles
of elocution; thus, "The head the heart and the hands, should be,
&c." or thus, "The head the heart, and the hands, should be
employed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where
the conjunction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where
the conjunction is understood? And, since this is the case, what
fair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation?
"The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and
actively employed in doing good;" "She is a woman, gentle, sensible,
well-educated, and religious."
[12] As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between
the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it;
but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the
noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such
instances, is properly omitted; thus, "David was a brave, wise, and
_pious_ man."
Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring
in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must be
separated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtue
supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth,
needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed."
_Exercises._ - We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the
understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man
from his rank in creation.
Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a
youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder
brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and
esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base.
An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true
lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking
are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great
business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and
talking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously
comprehends the whole of our duty.
In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of
decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle
trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy
person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain.
RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentences
connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is
restricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by
a comma; as, "Wisdom is better than riches;" "No preacher is so
successful as thee;" "He accepted _what_ I had rejected;" "Self-denial
is the _sacrifice which_ virtue must make;" "Subtract from many modern
poets _all that_ may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;"
"Give it to the _man whom_ you most esteem." In this last example, the
assertion is not of "man in general," but of "the man whom you most
esteem."
But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly
inserted before the relative; as, "_Man_, _who_ is born of a woman, is of
few days and full of trouble;" "There is no _charm_ in the female sex,
_which_ can supply the place of virtue."
This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative
is understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is,
"privileges _which_ you enjoy."
_Exercises._ - How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! The
friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them.
Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur
censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most
innocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils which
occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary.
The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in
its just proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected
civility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable
charm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw
yesterday.
RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction
expressed, they must not be separated; as, "Libertines call religion,
bigotry _or_ superstition;" "True worth is modest _and_ retired;" "The
study of natural history, expands _and_ elevates the mind;" "Some men
sin deliberately and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs,
the pairs only should be separated; as, "There is a natural difference
between merit _and_ demerit, virtue _and_ vice, wisdom _and_ folly;"
"Whether we eat _or_ drink, labor _or_ sleep, we should be temperate."
But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may be
separated by a comma; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable
rhapsodies, _or_ dangerous incentives to evil."
_Exercises_. - Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions.
True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior.
Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the
undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless
simple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the
strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.
RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, in
some instances, be inserted; as, "From law arises security; from
security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." But in others, it is
better to omit the comma; "No station is so high, no power so great, no
character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of
rashness, malice, and envy."
_Exercises_. - As a companion he was severe and satirical; as a friend
captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer
there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled
away without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age
miserable.
RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb,
and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma is
generally omitted; as, "I suppose _he is at rest_;" changed, "I suppose
_him to be at rest_."
But when the verb _to be_ is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood,
which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb
_to be_ is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma; as, "The
most obvious remedy is, _to withdraw from all associations with bad
men_;" "The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to
withdraw from all associations with bad men."
_Exercises._ - They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the
man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned
by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be
condemned by our own hearts.
NOTES.
1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the
member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to
require a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, _and_,
before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This
rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers; as,
"If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; _but_ if thou
forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever;" "_But_ if the parts
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted."
2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and
having a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, "To
relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the
innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble
employments."
3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the
form of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, "It
hurts a man's pride to say, _I do not know_;" "Plutarch calls lying,
_the vice of slaves_."
4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some
marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma; as,
"Tho' _deep_, yet _clear_; tho' _gentle_, yet not _dull_;
_Strong_, without _rage_; without _o'erflowing_, _full_."
"Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only
in union _with_, but in opposition _to_, the views and conduct of
each other."
Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is
single, the comma may be omitted; as, "Many states were in alliance
_with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome."
The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer
to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the
_threatening_, and at the _approach_, _of_ a cruel and lingering
death;" "He was not only the _king_, but _the father of_ his
people."
5. The words, "as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly,
formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the
next place, in short," and all other words and phrases of a similar
kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma; _as_,
"Remember thy best friend; _formerly_, the supporter of thy infancy;
_now_, the guardian of thy youth;" "He feared want; _hence_, he
overvalued riches;" "_So_, if youth be trifled away," &c. "_Again_,
we must, have food and clothing;" "_Finally_, let us conclude."
The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, to
suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for
inserting the comma; but in applying these rules, great regard must be
paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which
they bear to one another.
SEMICOLON.
The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more
parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma,
nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which are
distinguished by a colon.
RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself
give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes
when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding
one, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples: "As the desire
of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable
part of our species; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is
governed by vanity and folly;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains his
own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around
him;" "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."
_Exercises_. - The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of
falsehood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and
friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly
happiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery as
there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there
is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness.
But all subsists by elemental strife
And passions are the elements of life.
RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or
proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction _as;_ as
in the following instance: Prepositions govern the objective case; as,
"She gave the book _to_ him."
NOTE. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuists
employ the colon, instead of the semicolon.
COLON.
The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts
less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon;
but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences.
RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed
by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, the
colon may be properly employed; as, "Nature felt her inability to
extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealed
the plan of divine interposition and aid." "Great works are performed,
not by strength, but by perseverance: yonder palace was raised by single
stones; yet you see its height and spaciousness."
_Exercises._ - The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice
superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with
bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness
which loads it with tediousness and disgust.
When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we behold
there? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents
itself.
RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or
concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied; as, "A divine
legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor,
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual
rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath
awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the
world, which support integrity, and check guilt."
PERIOD.
When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected
with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close;
as, "Fear God." "Honor the patriot." "Respect virtue."
In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practice among
our best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences connected by
conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period; as, "Recreations,
though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to
keep them within a due and limited province. _But_ such as are of an
irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished
from every well-regulated mind."
The period should follow every abbreviated word; as, "A.D. N.B. U.S. Va.
Md. Viz. Col. Mr."
DASH.
The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers,
may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off
abruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is an
unexpected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected
once - but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If acting conformably to the
will of our Creator; - if promoting the welfare of mankind around us; - if
securing our own happiness; - are objects of the highest moment: then we
are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of
religion and virtue."
A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if
the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such
length as the sense only can determine.
"Here lies the great - False marble, where?
"Nothing but sordid dust lies here."
INTERROGATORY POINT.
The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative
sentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?"
NOTE. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where
it is only said, that a question has been asked; as, "The Cyprians
asked me, why I wept."
EXCLAMATORY POINT.
The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion,
surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations and addresses;
as, "How much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "What is more amiable than
virtue!" "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Hear me, O Lord! for thy
loving kindness is great!"
PARENTHESIS.
A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be
omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "To gain a
posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name
besides?) from oblivion."
"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
"Virtue alone is happiness below."
NOTE. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the
voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a
point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the
sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were not used.
It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member
has that precedes it; as "He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,)
who is not jealous when, he has partners of love."
"Or why so long (in life if long can be)
"Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?"
Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an
exception to this rule; as, "If I grant his request, (and who could
refuse it?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment."
APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION.
The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the
possessive case of a noun; as, "_'tis_, for _it is_; _tho,'_ for
_though_; _o'er_, for _over_;" "A _man's_ poverty."
A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language; as,
"The proper study of mankind is man."
When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of that
person should be designated by a quotation; as, At my coming in, he
said, "You and the physician are come too late." A quotation contained
within another, should be distinguished by two _single_ commas; as,
"Always remember this ancient maxim 'Know thyself.'"
DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS.
It is proper to begin with a capital,
1. The first word of every sentence.
2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c.; as, "James,
Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron;" "God, Jehovah, the Almighty the Supreme
Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit."
3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nouns
which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun _I_ and the
interjection _O_, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian,
English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Poems; I write; Hear,
O earth!"
APPENDIX.
VERSIFICATION.
POETRY is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination.
VERSIFICATION, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particular
number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according to
particular laws.
RHYME is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one
line, to the sound of the last syllable in another; as,
"O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue _sea_,
"Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as _free_."
BLANK VERSE consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers,
but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines which
constitutes rhyme.
POETICAL FEET consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of a
number of accented and unaccented syllables.
They are called _feet_, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it
were, _steps_ along through the verse in a measured pace.
All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and are
reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as
follows:
DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE.
A Trochee - u A Dactyle - u u
An Iambus u - An Amphibrach u - u
A Spondee - - An Anapaest u u -
A Pyrrhic u u A Tribrach u u u
A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as,
Hātefŭl, péttish:
Rēstlĕss mōrtăls tōil fŏr nāught.
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as,
Bĕtrāy, consíst:
Thĕ sēas shăll wāste, thĕ skīes ĭn smōke dĕcāy.
A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter
unaccented; as, Lābŏrĕr, póssible:
Frōm thĕ lŏw plēasŭres ŏf thīs făllĕn nātŭre.
An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last
accented; as, Cŏntrăvēne, acquiésce:
ăt thĕ clōse ŏf thĕ dāy whĕn thĕ hāmlĕt ĭs stīll.
A Spondee; as, The pāle mōōn: a Pyrrhic; as, ŏn thĕ tall
tree: an Amphibrach; as, Dēlightfūl: a Tribrach; as,
Numērăblĕ.
RHETORIC.
GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly.
RHETORIC teaches us to express them with force and elegance.
The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in
constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of
words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most
advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various
kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are
principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of
grammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the
liberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and
belles-lettres.
COMPOSITION.
It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that _good sense_ is
the foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well,
will scarcely write ill upon it.
Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of
good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her
province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and
appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of
expression. It ought to be his aim,
"To mark the point where sense and dulness meet."
STYLE. - PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION.
STYLE is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by
means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds,
and of the order in which they are produced.
The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads.
_perspicuity_ and _ornament_.
PERSPICUITY, which is considered the fundamental quality of a good
style, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases; and,
secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respect
to words and phrases, it requires these three qualities, _purity_,
_propriety,_ and _precision._
_Purity_ of language consists in the use of such words and such
constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition to