considers a _regular systematic order_.
The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to
_interrogate_ the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse
without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner
ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no
systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The _systematic_ order
laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply
every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses,
without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing,
he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the
learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great
relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method,
are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted
with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice,
wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and
recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of
them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates
the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the
young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most
important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying
them in parsing.
If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every
teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the
advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any
former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the
author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years,
devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system,
he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical
knowledge of this abstruse science, in _two months_, than he could in
_one year_ when he taught in the "old way." It is presumed that no
instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the
truth of this assertion.
Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the
transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will
find that, although the author has not followed the common "artificial
and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he
has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of the
understanding."
The learner should commence, _not by committing and rehearsing_, but by
reading attentively the first _two_ lectures several times over. He
ought then to parse, according to the _systematic order_, the examples
given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an
opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the
parts of speech included in the examples.
The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but
comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an
"Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young
student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very
commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem
rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of
discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing _five_ words
critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing _fifty_
words superficially, and without understanding their various properties.
The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing
his pupils recite a single lesson of _definitions_ committed to memory,
for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as
they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the
learner in school, as well as for the _private learner_, will be given
in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a
saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be
disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to
acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and
desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized;
but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the
acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient
ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its
contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not
be thrown upon _him._
* * * * *
To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to
lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints
by way of encouragement.
Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to make
himself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find it
an easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer,
is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of
the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him
communicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part of
speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties,
not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by
giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of
speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it,
and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the
rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other
parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until
the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may
have been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress,
on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and that
teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an
enviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM.
FAMILIAR LECTURES
ON
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
* * * * *
LECTURE I
DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. - ORTHOGRAPHY.
TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.
You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly
pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of
science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the
impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of
little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind,
all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to
convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a
pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that
directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the
condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which
alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of
elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual
existence; - of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and
enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and
every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these
remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens
the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is
indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic
of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even
if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think
it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses
a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship,
arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are
highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so
universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every
situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions; - when you speak,
read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility.
Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and
correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately
without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon
convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste,
may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire
that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring
errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross,
which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be
detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me,
therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of
grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or
write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express
their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it
impossible for any one to _understand_ them: their language frequently
amounts, not only to _bad_ sense, but _non_-sense. In other instances
several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and
what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so
constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they
intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your
attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.
The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way
smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed,
and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will
find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is
rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall,
therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to
illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you
will be able, _if you exercise your mind,_ to understand its nature, and
apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one
useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you
would probably be unable to comprehend.
Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the
sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either
by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to
inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all
doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing,
the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical
construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by
which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and
distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing;
and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any
branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be
understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be
discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to
meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to
overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your
studies, is to cultivate the habit of _thinking methodically and
soundly_ on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention.
Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to
speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according
to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This
system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and
strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a
process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar
communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.
You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and
knowledge; - an age in which science and the arts are marching onward
with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty; - a land on
which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of
the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or
in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the
mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich
boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our
fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so
unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself,
and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance.
Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous
people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our
youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the
grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a
laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which
leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the
hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her
crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned
and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you
will be happy.
LANGUAGE.
Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men
and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and
desires.
Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken
and written.
NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which
different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another.
The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of
their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The
elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds;
modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two
savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their
thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm
and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into
contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in
the use of those _inarticulate_ sounds by which they express their
thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a
lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of
a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.
ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which
mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another. - In
order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term _word,_ I
will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.
_Idea_. The _notices_ which we gain by sensation and perception, and
which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and
knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand
upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call _coldness_.
That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the
mind, is called _perception;_ and the abstract notice itself, or notion
you form of this sensation, is denominated an _idea_. This being
premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.
_Words_ are _articulate_ sounds, used by common consent, not as natural,
but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in
themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those
ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them.
In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the
name _gold;_ not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness
which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that
sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there
any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the
word _gold_ would convey the same idea to the people of other countries
as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make
use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, _aurum_ denotes
the same idea in Latin, and _or_ in French. Hence it follows, that it is
by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.
SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the
human voice.
_The voice_ is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis,
(a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by
the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.
WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or
characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined
into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate
sounds uttered by the voice.
* * * * *
GRAMMAR.
GRAMMAR is the science of language.
Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all
languages.
PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular
language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established
practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,
_The established practice of the best speakers and writers_ of any
language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that
language.
By the phrase, _established practice,_ is implied reputable, national,
and present usage. A usage becomes _good_ and _legal,_ when it has been
long and generally adopted.
_The best speakers and writers,_ or such as may be considered good
authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high
estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other
literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid
matter, and refined manner.
In the grammar of a _perfect_ language, no rules should be admitted, but
such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of
that language and the nature of things; but our language being
_im_-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a _practical_ treatise, like
this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated
by _custom_. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious
custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great
inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages
which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are
conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have
power to control it.
Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive
advancement, _varied_ for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it
assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give
it. We are, therefore, as _rational_ and _practical_ grammarians,
compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language
as it _is_, and not as it _should be_, and bow to custom.
PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of
language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of
thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words,
and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our
observance.
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words
of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on
scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and
design, and enforces their application.
PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the
language, sanctioned by good usage.
DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed
in a definite form.
RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial
relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.
* * * * *
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language
with propriety.
GRAMMAR teaches us _how to use words in a proper manner._ The most
important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts
to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what
they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply
them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were
invented. _Grammar_, well understood, enables us to express our
thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will
defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that
which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write
our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a
consideration of the highest moment.
Grammar is divided into four parts;
1. ORTHOGRAPHY,
2. ETYMOLOGY,
3. SYNTAX,
4. PROSODY.
ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of
letters, and the just method of spelling words.
ORTHOGRAPHY means _word-making_, or _spelling_. It teaches us the
different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into
syllables, and syllables into words.
As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume
you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just
method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell
long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather
dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and
analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can _spell correctly_, you
may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.
Orthography treats, 1st, of _Letters_, 2ndly, of _Syllables_, and 3dly,
of _Words_.
I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.
The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters.
They are divided into vowels and consonants.
A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels
are _a, e, i, o, u,_ and sometimes _w_ and _y_. _W_ and _y_ are
consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other
situation they are vowels.
A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the
help of a vowel; as, _b, d, f, l_. All letters except the vowels are
consonants.
Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.
The mutes cannot be sounded _at all_ without the aid of a vowel. They
are _b, p, t, d, k_, and _c_ and _g_ hard.
The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are _f, l,
m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft.
Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are called _liquids_,
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were,
into their sounds.
A diphthong is the union of _two_ vowels, pronounced by a single impulse
of the voice; as _oi_ in voice, _ou_ in sound.
A triphthong is the union of _three_ vowels pronounced in like manner;
as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view.
A _proper_ diphthong has _both_ the vowels sounded; as, _ou_ in ounce.
An _improper_ diphthong has only _one_ of the vowels sounded; as, _oa_
in boat.
II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single
impulse of the voice; as, _a, an, ant_.
A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two
syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a
word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.
III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as
signs of our ideas.
Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.
A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in
the language; as, _man, good_.
A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as,
_manful, goodness_.
There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words.
The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant,
en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were,
originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been
contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.
OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
A. - _A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in
_ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italian
sound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has the
short sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_
in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_.
The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma,
Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless
excrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_.
The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_;
except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and some
others.
_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_,
like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_.
_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_.
_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_.
B. - _B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_.
_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_,
&c. except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before
_t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c.
C. - _C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end of
syllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim,
flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre,
cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, and
is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social,
pronunciation_, &c.; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_.
It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_.
_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in words
derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in
_chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_.
In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise,
chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in
_milch, bench, clinch_, &c.
_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_,
except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant,
it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule,
schism, yacht, drachm_.
D. - _D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like
_dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in
_educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_.
The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains
its distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_
are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed,
walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. which are pronounced, _past, walkt,
flasht, aimd, rold_.
E. - _E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in
_men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; and
of short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in the
unaccented terminations, _es, et, en_.
F. - _F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_,
which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, a
calve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_
head.
G. - _G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and at
the end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is soft
before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get,
gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_.
H. - _H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silent
after _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_.
I. - _I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_.
Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; and
in other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words it
has the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_.
J. - _J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which it
is pronounced like _y_.
K. - _K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_,
where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before
_n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_.
L. - _L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is
often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_.
M. - _M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in
_comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_.
N. - _N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the other
a compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c., pronounced
_angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in
_hymn, autumn_.
O. - _O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in
_not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth,
does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_,
&c.
P. - _P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in
_cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in
_psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_.
_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in
_nephew, Stephen_.
Q. - _Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronounced
like _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_.
R. - _R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one;
as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_
is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_.
S. - _S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at the
beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister,
sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent and
another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in
_expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accent
and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier,
usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_.
T. - _T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accent
precedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature,
virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_
before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in
_salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c.
and unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting also
derivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_.
_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in
_thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c.
U. - _U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in
_dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It is
pronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy,
business_.
V. - _V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_.
W. - _W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo,
beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and also
in _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written after
the _h_; as in _why, when, what_; - _hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as a
vowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_.
X. - _X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with the
accent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accented
syllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse,
extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or
_h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_.
_X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greek
original; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_.
Y. - _Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York,
yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the
sound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system,
party, pyramid_.
Z. - _Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_.
RULES FOR SPELLING.
SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.
The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they
assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language.
This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book
and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.
RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final or
ending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff,
mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this,
us_, and _thus_.
_False Orthography for the learner to correct_. - Be thou like the
gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid. - The aged hero
comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam. - Shal
mortal man be more just than God? - Few know the value of health til
they lose it. - Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively
refined.
And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat
The vaulty heaven so high above our heads:
I have more care to stay, than wil to go.
RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never
double the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as,
_man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn,
purr_, and _buzz_.
_False Orthography_. - None ever went sadd from Fingal. - He rejoiced
over his sonn. - Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death. - Many a
trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth.
The weary sunn has made a golden sett,
And, by the bright track of his golden carr,
Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.
RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons of
verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and
superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a
_consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries;
carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_.
The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not be
doubled; as, _carry, carrying_.
But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above,
it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; except
in the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_,
and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c.
_False Orthography_. - Our fancys should be governed by reason. - Thou
wearyest thyself in vain. - He denyed himself all sinful pleasures.
Win straiing souls with modesty and love;
Cast none away.
The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty.
Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder
allies green.
RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllable
beginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant,
is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_.
But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very
rarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy,
joyless, joyful_.
_False Orthography_. - His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful
humors. - The vessel was heavyly laden. - When we act against
conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace.
Christiana, mayden of heroic mien!
Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!
RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable,
ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel,
double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins
with a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_.
But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the last
syllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer,
an offering; maid, maiden_.
_False Orthography_. - The business of to-day, should not be defered
till to-morrow. - That law is annuled. - When we have outstriped our
errors we have won the race. - By defering our repentance, we
accumulate our sorrows. - The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many
things which the heathen philosophers allowed.
At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow
Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below. -
Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound
Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground.
RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or
_ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fully
skilful_.
But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less,
ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as,
_harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_.
_False Orthography_. - A chillness generally precedes a fever. - He is
wed to dullness.
The silent stranger stood amazed to see
Contempt of wealth and willful poverty.
Restlesness of mind impairs our peace. - The road to the blisful
regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king. - The arrows of
calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue.
RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent
_e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_;
except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_.
_False Orthography_. - Sedatness is becoming.
All these with ceasless praise his works behold.
Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives
Her ploughshare o'er creation!
- - - Nature made a pause,
An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!
RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination,
_ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_.
_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ is
preceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry,
merriment_.
_False Orthography_. - A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates
improvment. - Encouragment is greatest when we least need it.
To shun allurments is not hard,
To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared.
RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_
or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable;
cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_
in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with
_able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_.
_False Orthography_. - Knowledge is desireable. - Misconduct is
inexcuseable. - Our natural defects are not chargable upon us. - We
are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves.
RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent
_e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge,
lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_.
_False Orthography_. - Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish
spirit. - An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected
with a servile and cringeing humor.
Conscience anticipateing time,
Already rues th' unacted crime.
One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs
Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas.
RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the
simple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight,