thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions to
this rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words,
_wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_.
_False Orthography_. - The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M.
2513. - They salute one another by touching their forheads. - That
which is some times expedient, is not allways so.
Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain,
There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man.
Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour,
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower.
The head reclined, the loosened hair,
The limbs relaxed, the mournful air: -
See, he looks up; a wofull smile
Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile.
You may now answer the following
QUESTIONS.
What is language? - How is language divided? - What is natural
language? - What are the elements of natural language in man? - Wherein
consists the language of brutes? - What is artificial language? - What is
an idea? - What are words? - What is grammar? - What does Universal grammar
explain? - Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal? - What
is the standard of grammatical accuracy? - What is Philosophical
grammar? - What is Practical grammar? - What is a principle of grammar? - A
definition? - A rule? - What is English grammar? - Into how many parts is
grammar divided? - What does Orthography teach?
* * * * *
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX
LECTURE II
OF NOUNS AND VERBS.
ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various
modifications, and their derivation.
SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their
proper arrangement in a sentence.
The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_.
_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means
_placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_.
The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and
their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to
correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles
unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a
prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of
Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes
necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these
two parts of grammar in connexion.
Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the
exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their
whole history, including their application to things in accordance with
the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply
them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources,
and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process
altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would
lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately
derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages
to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would
become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one
man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views
of this part of grammar.
1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words.
2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to each
class or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. By
modifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, in
consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one
another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_,
h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_,
writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will be
explained in their appropriate places.
3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teaches
you _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example,
from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_,
speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_.
These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the
last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other
only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on
the word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ who
speak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_
speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_
speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_.
The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the
second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the
Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of
derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is
the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is
not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to
trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the
Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their
meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but
it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their
connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in
which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor
in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but
_at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are already
derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound
to take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without any
regard to their ancient construction and application.
CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be
the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practical
convenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a
reference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words,
nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they are
at present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankind
are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to
communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the
transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in
short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_,
or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by
refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and
elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every
language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than
in its barbarous state.
The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the
_original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ of
meaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_.
The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it
represents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dips
his _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word
_paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painter
uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to
_name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and,
lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a
_verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these
applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and
thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took
_water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants.
ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic,
and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been
greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,
Italian, and German languages.
The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and
words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may
be estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words,
called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE,
ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and
INTERJECTION.
Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are
included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a
knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these
ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The
_Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech;
therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the
interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you
proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more
labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become
familiar with all the minor parts of speech.
The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them with
each other, and _express their actions_.
_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ which
denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and
expressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions and
being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised
in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults,
mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, that
no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the
foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in
this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a
greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the
subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this
arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words
are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared
to appreciate my arguments.
OF NOUNS.
A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston,
knowledge_.
Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is the
name of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a
_substance_ or a _quality_.
_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The name
of any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or
which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun.
_Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty,
virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish
this part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will be
useful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that will
make sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words by
this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind,
conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, and
so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed;
therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions to
this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. These
you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their
_making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope,
immortality_.
[1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is
almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal
and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that
which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also
frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly
_thing_." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature;
but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing.
Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as
its reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence,
invisibility_.
Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to
their _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives,
and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the
concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to
comprehend it.
NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper.
A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man,
tree, river_.
A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca,
Ganges_.
A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun of
multitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_.
The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For
example: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_
boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
_individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you
know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to all
boys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
individual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the name
of a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_
rivers.
Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things,
are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_,
different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties.
The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a
common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper
noun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are _common
nouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes of
things containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places,
rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are _proper nouns_, because they denote
_individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.
_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns,
because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, when
applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to
denote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common.
The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance,
demand your attentive and careful perusal.
NOTES.
1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are
used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled
_the_ Washington of South America."
2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when
articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is
studious; _That_ girl is discreet." In such instances, they are
nearly equivalent to proper nouns.
3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following
classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament:
_Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing;
and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from
their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student
be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives,
both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be
necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts
of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_
(that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it
belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_
the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and
_white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a
distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in
reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper,
_white_ mouse.
4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and
sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which
appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of
things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial
nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house:
3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man,
woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things
inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following,
however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the
names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial
nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope,
immortality.
To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case.
GENDER.
GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the
masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.
The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_.
The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_.
The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_.
_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neither
gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender
means _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes,
nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience,
we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_
gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only
languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division
of nouns. - The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther
explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the
following
NOTES.
1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and
sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the
masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate,
neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c._ if doubtful, are
of the masculine _or_ feminine gender.
2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or
_personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender.
Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous
for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by
nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep,
winter, &c._ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are
conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or
which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon,
church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune,
virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c._ This principle for designating the
sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally
adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet
applies the sex according to his fancy.
The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:
1. _By different words_; as,
_Masculine_. _Feminine_.
Bachelor maid
Boar sow
Boy girl
Brother sister
Buck doe
Bull cow
Cock hen
Dog bitch
Drake duck
Earl countess
Father mother
Friar nun
Gander goose
Hart roe
Horse mare
Husband wife
King queen
Lad lass
Lord lady
Man woman
Master mistress
Milter spawner
Nephew niece
Ram ewe
Singer songstress or singer
Sloven slut
Son daughter
Stag hind
Uncle aunt
Wizard witch
Sir madam
2. _By a difference in termination_; as,
Abbot abbess
Actor actress
Administrator administratrix
Adulterer adulteress
Ambassador ambassadress
Arbiter arbitress
Auditor auditress
Author authoress
Baron baroness
Benefactor benefactress
Bridegroom bride
Canon canoness
Caterer cateress
Chanter chantress
Conductor conductress
Count countess
Czar czarina
Deacon deaconess
Detracter detractress
Director directress
Duke dutchess
Elector electress
Embassador embassadress
Emperor emperess
Enchanter enchantress
Executor executrix
Fornicator fornicatress
God goddess
Governor governess
Heir heiress
Hero heroine
Host hostess
Hunter huntress
Inheritor inheritress or inheritrix
Instructor instructress
Jew Jewess
Lion lioness
Marquis marchioness
Mayor mayoress
Patron patroness
Peer peeress
Poet poetess
Priest priestess
Prince princess
Prior prioress
Prophet prophetess
Proprietor proprietress
Protector protectress
Shepherd shepherdess
Songster songstress
Sorcerer sorceress
Suiter suitress
Sultan sultaness or sultana
Tiger tigress
Testator testatrix
Traitor traitress
Tutor tutoress
Tyrant tyranness
Victor victress
Viscount viscountess
Votary votaress
Widower widow
3. _By prefixing another word_; as,
A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow
A man-servant A maid-servant
A he-goat A she-goat
A he-bear A she-bear
A male-child A female-child
Male-descendants Female-descendants
PERSON.
PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb.
The _first person_ denotes the speaker.
The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen,
_earth!"_
The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The
_earth_ thirsts."
Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks,
the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be in
the _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologists
suppose the noun to be in the _first_ person: - "This may certify, that
I, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident,
that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_
himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_.
If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought
is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed.
If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the
noun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him;
that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_
person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, have
you seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the
_third_.
"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ of
the sky?"
"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship
between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his
wig-wam behind the western waters."
"Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies!
Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!"
"Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore
Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore."
In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope,
are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the
nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain,
friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth,
bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person.
NUMBER.
Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two
numbers, the singular and the plural.
The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_.
The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_.
NOTES.
1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax,
barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness,
compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows,
scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers,
ides, pains, vespers, &c.
2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine;
and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species.
3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to
the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add
_es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes;
cargo, cargoes.
4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of
that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except
grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals
by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular
plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves.
5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the
same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty,
beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is
another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays;
attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys.
6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics,
hydraulics_, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns.
7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and
_amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in
signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiæ are
always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti.
8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any
general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox,
oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse,
lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny,
pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_
dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species
is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as,
six _peas_, ten _fishes_.
9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful,
handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls: - brother-in-law,
brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.
The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the
languages from which they are adopted.
_Singular_ _Plural._
Antithesis antitheses
Apex apices
Appendix appendixes _or_ appendices
Arcanum arcana
Automaton automata
Axis axes
Basis bases
Beau beaux _or_ beaus
Calx calces _or_ calxes
Cherub cherubim _or_ cherubs
Crisis crises
Criterion criteria
Datum data
Diæresis diæreses
Desideratum desiderata
Effluvium effluvia
Ellipsis ellipses
Emphasis emphases
Encomium encomia _or_ encomiums
Erratum errata
Genius genii [2]
Genus genera
Hypothesis hypotheses
Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui
Index indices _or_ indexes [3]
Lamina laminae
Magus magi
Memorandum memoranda _or_ memorandums
Metamorphosis metamorphoses
Parenthesis parentheses
Phenomenon phenomena
Radius radii _or_ radiuses
Stamen stamina
Seraph seraphim _or_ seraphs
Stimulus stimuli
Stratum strata
Thesis theses
Vertex vertices
Vortex vortices _or_ vortexes
[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental
abilities.
[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices,
when referring to algebraic quantities.
CASE.
Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state,
situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have
three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.
I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in
the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but in
the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming
different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this
definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning
principles, founded in the nature of things.
Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what
is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the
different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes.
The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What,
then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say
he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is
lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to
denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun
before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative
case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it
has another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_
in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_
gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is,
therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the
_boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of
the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I
say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as
_acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which
reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns
have three cases or positions.
As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably
connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them
until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I
will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in
connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of
the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.
In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with
each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to
the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of
the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to
name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for
their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted,
or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance,
they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so
on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow.
Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be
to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we
call
VERBS.
A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_;
I _rule_; I _am ruled_.
Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also
divided into regular, irregular, and defective.
The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifies
a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it
is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb
and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The
noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in
order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most
useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar.
The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as
you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.
For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the
verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as
_convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent
with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I
shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle
of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to
the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good
definition.
A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_.
An _active verb_ expresses action; and
The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John
writes_.
In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_,
because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_,
therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you
know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the
_nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man
walks - The boy plays - Thunders roll - - Warriors fight - you perceive that
the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you
cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and
_warriors_, are in the _nominative case._
As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it
follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This
_actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative.
_Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_
but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the
noun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or
nominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter
exemplified.
A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _a
state of being_; as, _John sits_.
Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as
the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative
case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express
_apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents
John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter
verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that
_neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender
implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence,
by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied
to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_
verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The
man stands - The lady lives - The child sleeps - The world exists - the
words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the
nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative
case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that
when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the
_actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an
actor, but the _subject_ of the verb.
Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms
_exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man
_stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_.
I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish
the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its
signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a
verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to
live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a
verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he
writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will
not make sense with _to_ prefixed - _to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is
nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_ - I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is
worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_
verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes
used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.
To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_.
At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but
hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties.
And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the
_intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions,
you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such
principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the
time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get
along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one
principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you
for the next.
NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the
_actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by
the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or
relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore,
only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same
instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is
here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and
the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs;
therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with
its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb
must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb
ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_;
thus, The girl _writes_ - the _girls_ write.
_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_,
but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree
with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb