separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes
placed between the adjective _many_ and a singular noun; as, "Where
_many a rosebud_ rears its blushing head;" "Full _many a flower_ is
born to blush unseen."
5. The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to _adverbs_ in
the comparative or superlative degree; as, "_The more_ I examine it,
_the better_ I like it," "I like this _the least_ of any."
You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have
committed this
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING
_The order of parsing an_ Article, is - an article, and why? - definite or
indefinite, and why? - with what noun does it agree? - RULE.
"He is _the_ son of _a_ king."
_The_ is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its
signification - definite, it limits the noun to a particular object - it
belongs to the noun "son," according to
RULE 2. _The definite article_ the _belongs to nouns in the singular or
plural number_.
_A_ is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its
signification - indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to
no particular one - it agrees with "king," agreeably to
RULE 1. _The article_ a _or_ an _agrees with nouns in the singular
number only_.
NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the
propriety of Rule 1, will appear. _A_ or _an_, (formerly written
_ane,)_ being equivalent to _one, any one_, or _some one_, cannot be
prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an
exception to this rule. _A_ is placed before a plural noun when any
of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun:
_few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million_; as, _a_ few
_men, a_ thousand _houses_, &c.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue
pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass.
Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. An
ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo
invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir
Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin
invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book.
I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles,
which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable
you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to
answer the following
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
How many articles are there? - In what sense is a noun taken, when it has
no article to limit it? - Repeat the _order_ of parsing an article. - What
rule applies in parsing the _definite_ article? - What rule in parsing
the _indefinite_?
* * * * *
PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
A, AN, THE.
In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, _a_ and _the_
belong to that class of adjectives denominated _definitives_ or
_restrictives_.
_A, an, ane_, or _one_, is the past participle of _ananad_, to add,
to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is
_added, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned,)_ or made _one_.
_The_ and _that_. According to Horne Tooke, _the_ is the imperative,
and _that_, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to
get, take, assume. _The_ and _that_ had, originally, the same
meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern
refinement. Hence, _that_, as well as _the_, was formerly used,
indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun.
* * * * *
QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.
Before what nouns is the article omitted? - Is the article _the_ ever
applied to adverbs? - Give examples. - What is the meaning of _a_ or _an_?
- When is _a_ or _an_ placed before a plural noun? - From what are _a,
the_, and _that_ derived?
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
NOTE TO RULE 1. _An_ is used before a vowel or silent _h_, and _a_
before a consonant or _u_ long, and also before the word _one_.
It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note,
improper to say, _a_ apple, _a_ humble suppliant, _an_ hero, _an_
university, because the word _apple_ begins with a vowel, and _h_ is not
sounded in the word _humble_, for which reasons _a_ should be _an_ in
the first two examples; but, as the _h_ is sounded in _hero_, and the
_u_ is long in _university, a_ ought to be prefixed to these words:
thus, _an_ apple, _an_ humble suppliant: _a_ hero, _a_ university. You
may correct the following
EXAMPLES.
A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen,
an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard
saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an
horse.
NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used
they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character;
as, "Gold is corrupting; _The_ sea is green; _A_ lion is bold." It would
be improper to say, _The_ gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is
bold.
The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for
the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted.
In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular
kind of _grass_ or _wheat_, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to
any particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are
speaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article _the_
should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any
definite kind, quality, or number of _horses_ or _men_; but to horses
and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote _whole
species_, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence
should read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men."
In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the
crops of _grass_ and _wheat_ now on the ground, which, in
contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as
_particular_ objects; therefore we should say, "_The_ grass looks
well; _The_ wheat is blighted."
NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its _general_ sense, the article should
be omitted; as, "_Poetry_ is a pleasing art;" "_Oranges_ grow in New
Orleans."
FALSE SYNTAX.
Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How
does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of
the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper
for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way
unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the
four elements of the old philosophers.
* * * * *
LECTURE IV.
OF ADJECTIVES.
An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind,
or to restrict its meaning; as, a _good_ man, a _bad_ man, _a free_ man,
an _unfortunate_ man, _one_ man, _forty_ men.
In the phrases, a _good_ apple, a _bad_ apple, a _large_ apple, a
_small_ apple, a _red_ apple, a _white_ apple, a _green_ apple, a
_sweet_ apple, a _sour_ apple, a _bitter_ apple, a _round_ apple, a
_hard_ apple, a _soft_ apple, a _mellow_ apple, a _fair_ apple, a _May_
apple, an _early_ apple, a _late_ apple, a _winter_ apple, a _crab_
apple, a _thorn_ apple, a _well-tasted_ apple, an _ill-looking_ apple, a
_water-cored_ apple, you perceive that all those words in _italics_ are
adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun
apple, or it shows what _kind_ of an apple it is of which we are
speaking.
The distinction between a _noun_ and an _adjective_ is very clear. A
noun is the _name_ of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the
_quality_ or _property_ of a thing. This is _fine cloth_. In this
example, the difference between the word denoting the _thing_, and that
denoting the _quality_ of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot
be at a loss to know, that the word _cloth_ expresses the _name_, and
_fine_, the _quality_, of the _thing_; consequently _fine_ must be an
_adjective_. If I say, He is a _wise_ man, a _prudent_ man, a _wicked_
man, or an _ungrateful_ man, the words in _italics_ are adjectives,
because each expresses a _quality_ of the noun man. And, if I say, He is
a _tall_ man, a _short_ man, a _white_ man, a _black_ man, or a
_persecuted_ man, the words, _tall, short, white, black_, and
_persecuted_, are also adjectives, because they tell what _kind_ of a
man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some
particular property.
Some adjectives _restrict_ or _limit_ the signification of the nouns to
which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called
_definitives_; as, _one_ era, _seven_ ages, the _first_ man, the _whole_
mass, _no_ trouble, _those_ men, _that_ book, _all_ regions.
Other adjectives _define_ or _describe_ nouns, or do both; as, _fine_
silk, _blue_ paper, a _heavy_ shower, _pure_ water, _green_ mountains,
_bland_ breezes, _gurgling_ rills, _glass_ window, _window_ glass,
_beaver_ hats, _chip_ bonnets, _blackberry_ ridge, _Monroe_ garden,
_Juniata_ iron, _Cincinnati_ steam-mill.
Some adjectives are _secondary_, and qualify other adjectives; as,
_pale_ red lining, _dark_ blue silk, _deep sea_ green sash, _soft_ iron
blooms, _red hot_ iron plate.
You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those
_men_ are _tall_; A _lion_ is _bold_; The _weather_ is _calm_; The
_tree_ is three feet _thick_."
Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other
parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word
that will make sense with the word _thing_ added, or with any other noun
following it, is an adjective; as, a _high_ thing, a _low_ thing, a
_hot_ thing, a _cold_ thing, an _unfinished_ thing, a _new-fashioned_
thing: - or, a _pleasant_ prospect, a _long-deserted_ dwelling, an
_American_ soldier, a _Greek_ Testament. Are these words adjectives,
_distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?_ A distant
_object_ or _thing_, yonder _hill_, &c. They are. They will make sense
with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter
will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an
adjective by its _qualifying a noun or pronoun_.
Most words ending in _ing_ are _present participles_. These are
frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make
sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after
them; as, a _pleasing_ thing, a _moving_ spectacle, _mouldering_ ruins.
In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have
gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither
gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to _creatures_
and _things_, and not to their _qualities_; therefore gender, person,
number, and case, are the properties of _nouns_, and _not_ of
adjectives.
Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They
have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the
Superlative.
The _positive degree_ expresses the quality of an object without any
increase or diminution; as, _good, wise, great_.
The _comparative degree_ increases or lessens the positive in
signification; as, _better, wiser, greater, less wise_.
The _superlative degree_ increases or lessens the positive to the
highest or lowest degree; as, _best, wisest, greatest, least wise_.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
_More_ and _most_ form the comparative and superlative degrees by
increasing the positive; and _less_ and _least_, by diminishing it.
Comparison by increasing the positive
_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._
great, greater, greatest.
wise, wiser, wisest.
holy, more holy most holy.
frugal, more frugal most frugal.
Comparison by diminishing the positive.
_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._
wise, less wise least wise.
holy, less holy, least holy.
frugal, less frugal, least frugal.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
Words used in counting, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the
_cardinal_ kind; as, _one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,_ &c.
Words used in numbering, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the
_ordinal_ kind; as, _first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,_
&c.
NOTE. The words _many, few_, and _several_, as they always refer to
an indefinite number, may be properly called _numeral adjectives_ of
the indefinite kind.
NOTES.
1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding
_r_, or _er_; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding
_st_, or _est_, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wise_r_, Sup.
wise_st_; rich, rich_er_, rich_est_; bold, bold_er_, bold_est_. The
adverbs, _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, when placed before the
adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com. _more_ wise,
Sup. _most_ wise; Pos. wise, Com. _less_ wise, Sup. _least_ wise.
2. _Monosyllables_ are generally compared by adding _er_ and _est;
dissyllables, trisyllables_, &c. by _more_ and _most_; as, mild,
milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more
virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in _y_; as, happy,
lovely; and in _le_ after a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables
accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of
_er_ and _est_; as, happi_er_, happi_est_; polit_er_, _polit_est_.
Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these
terminations.
3. When the positive ends in _d_, or _t_, preceded by a _single_
vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and
superlative degrees; as red, _redder, reddest_; hot, _hotter,
hottest_.
4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding _most_ to the
end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost,
uppermost, foremost.
5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very
common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better
of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of
comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little,
less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or
next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or
eldest;" and a few others.
6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the
_superlative_ degree, because, by expressing a quality in the
highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative
signification: _chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just,
true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless,
unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise,
eternal_.
7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising
from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as,
_well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular,
quadrangular, conical_, &c.
8. The termination _ish_ added to adjectives, expresses a slight
degree of quality below the comparative; as, _black, blackish; salt,
saltish. Very_, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of
quality, but not always a superlative degree.
Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may
parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the
examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and
rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed,
please to commit the
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
_The order of parsing an_ ADJECTIVE, is - an adjective, and why? - compare
it - degree of comparison, and why? - to what noun does it belong? - RULE.
That _great_ nation _was_ once _powerful_; but now it is _feeble_.
_Great_ is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its
quality - pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest - it is in the positive
degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or
diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to
RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
understood_.
_Was_ is a verb, a word that signifies to be - neuter, it expresses
neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being - third person
singular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitude
conveying _unity_ of idea - it agrees with "nation," agreeably to RULE
10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, may have a verb or
pronoun agreeing with it in the_ singular.
_Powerful_ is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18.
_Feeble_ belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18. _Is_ is a
neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably to Rule 4.
"Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men."
_Four-hundred-thousand_ is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it
is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men," according to
Note 2, under Rule 18. _Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns
must agree in number with their adjectives_.
If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which
you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the
foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without
any difficulty.
_More_ is an adverb. _Of_ and _to_ are prepositions, governing the nouns
that follow them in the objective case.
EXERCISES IN PARSING. A benevolent man helps indigent beggars.
Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large
ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less
burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions
offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No
composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass
looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes
a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful.
Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next
to Epaminondas.
The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four
thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a
cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway.
NOTE. _Like, Worth_. The adjective _like_ is a contraction of the
participle _likened_, and generally has the preposition _unto_
understood after it. "She is _like_ [_unto_] her brother." "They are
_unlike_ [_to_] him." "The kingdom of heaven is _like_ [_likened_ or
made _like_] _unto_ a householder."
The noun _worth_ has altogether dropped its associated words. "The
cloth is _worth_ ten dollars _a_ yard;" that is, The cloth is _of
the_ worth _of_ ten dollars _by the_ yard, or _for a, one_, or
_every yard_.
Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an
ellipsis after _like, worth, ere, but, except_, and _than_, but
consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of
this work.
REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its
noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood;
as, "The _virtuous_ [_persons_] and the _sincere_ [_persons_] are always
respected;" "Providence rewards the _good_ [_people,_] and punishes the
_bad_ [_people._]"
"The _evil_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] that men do, lives after them;
"The _good_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] is oft-interred with their bones."
But sometimes the adjective, by its _manner_ of meaning, becomes a noun,
and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief _good_;" "The
vast _immense_ [_immensity_] of space."
Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of
adjectives, according to their _manner_ of meaning; as, "_Sea_ fish,
_iron_ mortar, _wine_ vessel, _gold_ watch, _corn_ field, _meadow_
ground, _mountain_ height."
The principle which recognises _custom_ as the standard of grammatical
accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only _six_ words,
and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the
genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be
correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, good_er_, good_est_;
bad, bad_der_, bad_dest_; little, littl_er_, littl_est_; much,
much_er_; much_est_." "By _this mean_;" "What _are_ the _news_." But such
a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish
it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the
good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as
in a thousand others, to yield to _custom_, and say, "Good, _better,
best_; bad, _worse, worst_; little, _less, least_; much, _more, most_;"
"By _this means_;" "What _is_ the _news_?"
With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care
must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or
nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen
rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your
pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind _the meaning of the
words_ which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the
ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid
innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he
is _very_ wicked, or _exceedingly_ lavish, because the terms _wicked_ and
_lavish_ are adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the
words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man
_very_ honest, or _exceedingly_ just, for the words _honest_ and _just_,
literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is _honest_ or
_dishonest, just_ or _unjust_: there can be no medium or excess in this
respect. _Very_ correct, _very_ incorrect, _very_ right, _very_ wrong,
are common expressions; but they are not _literally_ proper. What is not
_correct_, must be _incorrect_; and that which is not _incorrect_, must
be _correct_: what is not _right_, must be _wrong_; and that which is
not _wrong_, must be _right_. To avoid that circumlocution which must
otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently
compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "The
_most established_ practice;" "The _most uncertain_ method;" "Irving, as
a writer, _is far more accurate_ than Addison;" "The metaphysical
investigations of our philosophical grammars, are _still more
incomprehensible_ to the learner." Comparisons like these, should
generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice,
as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with
the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative.
Comparative members of sentences, should be set in _direct opposition_
to each other; as, "Pope was _rich_, but Goldsmith was _poor_." The
following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was _wiser_ than Cicero was
_eloquent_." "The principles of the reformation were _deeper_ in the
prince's mind than to be _easily eradicated_." This latter sentence
contains _no comparison_ at all; neither does it literally convey _any
meaning_. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my
teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would
imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiser
_than_ my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but
places himself in contradistinction to them.
Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective? - By what sign
may an adjective be known? - Are participles ever used as
adjectives? - Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to
adjectives? - How are they varied? - Name the three degrees of
comparison. - What effect have _less_ and _least_ in comparing
adjectives? - Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. - What rule
applies in parsing an adjective? - What rule in parsing a verb agreeing
with a noun of multitude conveying _unity_ of idea? - What Note should be
applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun? - What Note
in parsing _numeral_ adjectives?
QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat all the various ways of forming the
degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES. - Compare these
adjectives; _ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, much_
or _many, near, late, old_. - Name some adjectives that are always in the
superlative, and never compared. - Are compound adjectives
compared? - What is said of the termination _ish_, and of the adverb
_very?_ - When does an adjective become a noun? - What character does a
noun assume when placed before another noun? - How can you prove that
_custom_ is the standard of grammatical accuracy?
* * * * *
PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
ADNOUNS.
_Adnoun_ or _Adjective_, comes from the Latin, _ad_ and _jicio_, to
_add to_.
Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their
comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect
the former object, are called _adjectives_, or _attributes;_ and
those which effect the latter, _restrictives_. It is not, in all
cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should
be referred. Words which express simply the _qualities_ of nouns,
are adjectives; and such as denote their _situation_ or _number_,
are restrictives.
Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs.
Some consider the adjective, in its present application, _exactly_
equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of
juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "A
_golden_ cup," say they, "is the same as a _gold_ cup, or a cup _of
gold_." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cup _of
gold_," may mean either a cup-_full_ of gold, or a cup _made_ of
gold. "An _oaken_ cask," signifies an _oak_ cask, or a cask _of
oak_; i.e. a cask _made_ of oak; but a _beer_ cask, and a cask _of
beer_, are two different things. A _virtuous_ son; a son _of
virtue_.
The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to
consist in its both _naming_ a quality, and _attributing_ that
quality to some object.
The terminations _en, ed_, and _ig_ (our modern _y_,) signifying
_give, add, join_, denote that the names of qualities to which they
are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such
qualities: wood-_en_, wood-_y_. See page 37.
_Left_ is the past participle of the verb _leave_. Horne Tooke
defines _right_ to be that which is _ordered_ or _directed_. The
_right_ hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use
in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference,
the other is the _leaved, leav'd_, or _left_ hand; i.e. the one
_leaved_ or _left_. "The one shall be taken, and the other _(leaved)
left_."
_Own_. Formerly a man's _own_ was what he _worked for, own_ being a
past participle of a verb signifying to _work_.
_Restrictive_. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only
to singular nouns; such as _a_ or _an, another, one, this, that,
each, every, either_. Others, only to plural nouns; as, _these,
those, two, three, few, several, all_. But most restrictives, like
adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns: _first,
second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which,
what_.
_Numerals_. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by
the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost
extent of its signification. _Ten_ is the past participle of
_tynan_, to close, to shut in. The hands _tyned, tened_, closed, or
shut in, signified _ten_; for there numeration _closed_. To denote a
number greater than ten, we must begin again, _ten_ and _one, ten_
and _two_, &c.
_Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane_, is a compound of _two (twa, twae,
twee, twi, two_ or _dwo_ or _duo)_ and _one (ane, ain, an.)_ It
signifies _two_ units _joined, united, aned,_ or _oned. Twenty
(twa-ane-ten)_ signifies _two tens aned, oned_, or _united_. Things
_separated_ into parcels of twenty each, are called _scores. Score_
is the past participle of _shear_, to _separate_.
_The Ordinals_ are formed like abstract nouns in _eth. Fifth,
sixth_, or _tenth_ is the number which _fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth_,
or mak-_eth_ up the number _five, six_, or _ten_.
Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in
which they were _originally_ employed, and suppose that all the
complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual
progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to
be reduced to _the standard of our forefathers_; appear not to have
sufficiently attended to the _changes_ which this principle of
association actually produces. As language is transmitted from
generation to generation, many words become the representatives of
ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they
undergo a change, not only in the _mode_ of their application, but
also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their
meaning must necessarily change as much, _at least_, as things
themselves change; but this variation in their import more
frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas
connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only
of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses
altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with
which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated.
Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks.
In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the
following language: "I, Paul, a _rascal_ of Jesus Christ, unto you
Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word,
would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a _rascal?
Rascal_ formerly meant a _servant:_ one devoted to the interest of
another; but now it is nearly synonymous with _villain. Villain_
once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term;
but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held
lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant,
"As you are an accomplished _villain_, I order that you receive £700
out of the public treasury." The word _villain_, then, has given up
its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the
word _tenant_ having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of
words _changes_, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the
intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.
* * * * *
QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
How are adnouns divided? - What constitutes the true character of an
adjective? - What are the signification and denotement of the
terminations, _en, ed_, and _ig?_ - What do _left_ and _own_
signify? - Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied. - How
was numeration originally performed? - What is said of _twain, twenty,
score_, and the ordinal numbers? - What is said of the changes produced
in the meaning of words, by the principle of association?
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double _Comparatives_
and _Superlatives_ should be avoided; such as, _worser, lesser, more_
deeper, _more_ wickeder, &c.: _chiefest, supremest, perfectest,
rightest_; or _more_ perfect, _most_ perfect, _most_ supreme, &c.
Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his
chiefest desire.
He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to
rule the night.
The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are
incorrect, because _supreme_ and _chief_ are in the superlative degree
without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes
them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme
dignity," and, "his chief desire."
We can say, one thing is _less_ than another, or _smaller_ than another,
because the adjectives _less_ and _smaller_ are in the comparative
degree; but the phrase "_lesser_ light," in the second sentence, is
inaccurate. _Lesser_ is a double comparative, which, according to the
preceding Note, should be avoided. _Lesser_ is as incorrect as _badder,
gooder, worser_. "The _smaller_ light," would be less exceptionable. You
can correct the following without my assistance. Correct them _four_
times over.
The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of
imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the
faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most
sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory,
He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong
proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness,
the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof
of the truer friendship.
LECTURE V.
OF PARTICIPLES.
A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature
of a verb, and also of an adjective.
Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and
the compound.
The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle denotes action or being
continued, but not perfected. It always ends in _ing_; as, _ruling,
being_: "I am _writing_ a letter."
The _perfect_ participle denotes action or being perfected or finished.
When derived from a regular verb, it ends in _ed_, and corresponds with
the imperfect tense; as, _ruled, smiled:_ "The letter is _written_."
The _compound_ participle implies action or being completed before the
time referred to. It is formed by placing _having_ before the perfect
participle; as, _having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written_ the
letter, he mailed it."
The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_, which
signifies to _partake_: and this name is given to this part of speech,
because it _partakes_ of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.
By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as
a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an
adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb,
and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is
believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to
entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the
connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also
the noun and the verb.
All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs,
they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives,
they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the
sentences, The boatman is _crossing_ the river; I see a man _laboring_
in the field; Charles is _standing_; you perceive that the participles
_crossing_ and _laboring_ express the actions of the boatman and the
man, and _standing_ the state of being of Charles. In these respects,
then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they
_describe_ the several nouns associated with them, like describing
adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties
of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which
are still going on; that is, _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ actions; for
which reason we call them _imperfect_ participles.
Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the
imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns,
they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated
_participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_
stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar.
Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_,
describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where
the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this
descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is
_running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects,
as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well as
when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a
participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of
meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this
distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the
meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to
distinguish the one from the other.
_Participles. Participial adjectives_.
See the sun _setting_. See the _setting_ sun.
See the moon _rising_. See the _rising_ moon.
The wind is _roaring_. Hear the _roaring_ wind.
The twig is _broken_. The _broken_ twig fell.
The vessel _anchored_ in the The _anchored_ vessel spreads
bay, lost her mast. her sail.
The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_;
as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived from
the verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in
_ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling,
uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you parse a word ending
in _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or
not. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word
_interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as
_un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle:
but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be able
very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of
speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the
verb.
Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun,
smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate,
disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _having
learned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_,
and so on.
You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceed
with me.
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is - a participle, and why? - from
what verb is it derived? - speak the three - present, perfect, or
compound, and why? - to what does it refer or belong? - RULE.
"I saw a vessel _sailing"_
_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of
the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective - it comes from the verb
to sail - pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed - it is a
present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of