an unfinished action - and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject,
according to
RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting
the subject or actor_.
"Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow."
_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express
its quality - it cannot, with propriety, be compared - - it belongs to the
noun "billow," agreeably to
RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
understood_.
You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a
little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE.
Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with a
noun or pronoun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement;
but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing;
or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle
_sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a
plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in
both examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governed
by the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending
of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is
its nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_.
In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates
to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse,"
the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object of
the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and
it is governed by the participle beating, according to
RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have from
which they are derived_.
The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a
participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of
action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must
govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.
When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed
and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If,
in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse
correctly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend for
definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again
the whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for
your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have
acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_
more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in
your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying
these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical
knowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years.
In the following examples, the words _purling, crusted, slumbering_, and
_twinkling_, are participial adjectives. _There_ and _its_ you may omit.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking.
The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long
rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching,
melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old
hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds
the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the
desert thistle bending there its lowly head.
REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES.
Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A good _understanding_;
Excellent _writing_; He made a good _beginning_, but a bad _ending_."
Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best
authorities: "The goods are _selling_;" "The house is _building_;" "The
work is now _publishing_." A modern innovation, however, is likely to
supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods are _being sold_;"
"The house is _being built_;" "The work is now _being published_."
You may now answer these
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
How many kinds of participles are there? - What is the ending of a
present participle? - What does a perfect participle denote? - With what
does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond? - What is a
compound participle? - From what word is the term participle
derived? - Why is this part of speech thus named? - Wherein does this part
of speech partake of the nature of a verb? - Do all participles
participate the properties of adjectives? - In what respect? - When are
participles called _participial adjectives_? - Give examples. - How may a
present participle be known? - Repeat the order of parsing a
participle. - What rule applies in parsing a _present_ participle? - What
Rule in parsing a participial adjective? - Do participles vary in their
terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor? - What Rule
applies in parsing a noun in the _objective case_, governed by a
participle? - Do participles ever become nouns? - Give examples.
* * * * *
PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination _ing,
ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies the same as the noun _being_. When
postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus
formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It
implies that what is meant by the verb, is _being_ continued. _En_
is an alteration of _an_, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct; _ed_ is a
contraction of _dede_; and the terminations _d_ and _t_, are a
contraction of _ed_. Participles ending in _ed_ or _en_, usually
denote the _dodo, dede, doed, did, done_, or _finished_ state of
what is meant by the verb. The book is _printed_. It is a _print-ed_
or _print-done_ book, or such a one as the _done_ act of _printing_
has made it. The book is _written_; i.e. it has received the _done_
or _finish-ed_ act of _writ-ing_ it.
Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to
nouns. They might, therefore, be styled _verbal adjectives_. But
that theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a
sandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided more
by their _manner_ of meaning, and their _inferential_ meaning, than
by their primitive, essential signification. "I have a _broken_
plate;" i.e. I have a plate - _broken_; "I have _broken_ a plate." If
there is no difference in the _essential_ meaning of the word
_broken_, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that
there is a wide difference in the meaning - _inferred_ by custom;
which difference depends on the _manner_ in which the term is
applied. The former construction denotes, that I _possess_ a plate
which was _broken_, (whether with or without my agency, is not
intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas,
the meaning of the latter is, that I _performed the act_ of reducing
the plate from a whole to a _broken_ state; and it is not intimated
whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that,
in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in
constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with
different parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishes
the propriety of retaining what we call the _perfect tense_ of the
verb.
* * * * *
QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
How are participles formed? - What does the imperfect part express? -
What do perfect participles denote?
* * * * *
LECTURE VI.
OF ADVERBS.
An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of a _verb_, a_participle_,
an _adjective_, or another _adverb_.
Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a _noun_. It qualifies any of the
four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others.
To _modify_ or _qualify_, you know, means to produce some _change_. The
adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style _excels_ Irving's, the
proposition is affirmative, and the verb _excels_ expresses the
affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style _excels not_ Irving's, the
assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or
changes the meaning of the verb _excels_? You perceive that it is the
little word _not_. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the
sentence. _Not_, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb.
When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it
generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is
performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the
phrases, The man rides _gracefully, awkwardly_, _badly, swiftly,
slowly_, &c.; or, I saw the man riding _swiftly, slowly, leisurely, very
fast_, &c., you perceive that the words _gracefully, awkwardly, very
fast_, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verb _rides_, or the participle
_riding_, because they express the _manner_ in which the action denoted
by the verb and participle, is done.
In the phrases, The man rides _daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often,
sometimes, never_; or, The man rode _yesterday, heretofore, long since,
long ago, recently, lately, just now_ or, The man will ride _soon,
presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter_, you
perceive that all these words in _italics_, are adverbs, qualifying the
meaning of the verb, rides, because they express the _time_ of the
action denoted by the verb.
Again, if I say, The man lives _here, near by, yonder, remote, far off,
somewhere, nowhere, everywhere_, &c., the words in _italics_ are adverbs
of _place_, because they tell where he lives.
Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as,
_more_ wise, _most_ wise; or _more wisely, most wisely_. When an adverb
is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses _the degree_
of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison.
Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective _skilful_
is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb _more_ before the
adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to
the comparative; as, A _more_ skilful artist: and _most_ renders it
superlative; as, A _most_ skilful artist. And if we place more and most
before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, _more_
skilfully, _most_ skilfully.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_.
soon sooner soonest.
often oftener oftenest.
much more most.
well better best.
far farther farthest.
wisely more wisely most wisely.
justly more justly most justly.
justly less justly least justly.
You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find
it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in
the English language. I will, therefore, give you some _signs_ which
will assist you a little.
Most words ending in _ly_ are adverbs; such as, _politely, gracefully,
judiciously_. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of
the questions, _how? how much? when?_ or _where?_ is an adverb; as, The
river flows _rapidly_; He walks _very fast_; He has gone _far away;_ but
he will _soon_ return; She sings _sweetly_; They learn _none at all_.
How, or in what manner does the river flow? _Rapidly_. How does he walk?
_Very fast_. Where has he gone? _Far away_. When will he return? _Soon_.
How does she sing? _Sweetly_. How much do they learn? _None at all_.
From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these
adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the
questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by
considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing
their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other
words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly
important. _Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly_, &c. are known to be
adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A _very_ good pen
writes _extremely well." Well_, in this sentence, is known to be an
adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb _writes; extremely_, by
its ending in _ly_, or by its being joined to the adverb _well_ to
qualify it; and _very_ is known as an adverb by its joining the
adjective _good_.
Expressions like these, _none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long
since, at length, in vain_, when they are used to denote the _manner_ or
_time_ of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed
_adverbial phrases_.
Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical
convenience, be reduced to particular classes.
1. _Of Number;_ as, Once, twice, thrice, &c.
2. _Of Order;_ as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c.
3. _Of Place;_ as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere,
nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward,
backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c.
4. _Of Time_. _Present_; as, Now, to-day, &c. _Past_; as, Already,
before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago,
&c. _Future_; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth,
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long,
straightways, &c. _Time indefinite_; as, Oft, often, oft-times,
often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly,
always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c.
5. _Of Quantity_; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great,
enough, abundantly, &c.
6. _Of Manner_ or _quality_; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly,
quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and
they are generally formed by adding the termination _ly_ to an adjective
or a participle, or by changing _le_ into _ly;_ as, Bad, badly;
cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably.
7. _Of Doubt_; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.
8. _Of Affirmation_; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless,
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.
9. _Of Negation_; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise,
&c.
10. _Of Interrogation_; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and
sometimes when, whence, where.
11. _Of Comparison_; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less,
least, very, almost, little, alike, &c.
NOTES.
1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our
language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions
with the adverbs of place, _here, there, where_; as, Hereof,
thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby,
whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein;
therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon,
hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.
2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter _a_,
used instead of _at, an_, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep,
aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance,
away, asunder, astray, &c.
You will now please to read this lecture _four_ times over, and read
slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and
character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to
distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in
this sentence which you have just read, the words _slowly, carefully,
well_, and _frequently_, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in
the question I have just put to you, the words _now_ and _just_ are
adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in
reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading.
In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely,
Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I
believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the
systematic order, _four_ times over. Those words in _italics_ are
adverbs.
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
_The order of parsing an_ ADVERB, is - an adverb, and why? - what
sort? - what does it qualify? - RULE.
"My friend has returned _again_; but his health is _not very_ good."
_Again_, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb - of
time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined - it
qualifies the verb "has returned," according to
Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other
adverbs_.
_Not_ is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb - of
negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the
proposition from an affirmative to a negative - and it qualifies the
adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, &c_.
_Very_ is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an
adjective - of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and
qualifies it according to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c_.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
The traveller described a lofty castle decaying _gradually. Very_ few
literary men _ever_ became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels
_not_ Homer. The Roman women, _once voluntarily_ contributed their
_most_ precious jewels to save the city.
Many small streams uniting, form _very_ large rivers. The river Funza
falling _perpendicularly_ forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants
_always_ drive horses _very carefully_; negligent servants _often_ drive
horses _very carelessly_. Assiduous scholars improve _very fast_; idle
scholars learn _none at all_. Friendship _often_ ends in love; but love
in friendship, _never_.
NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? _Not
yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far_, and _enough_, qualify
"have walked" understood; _perhaps_ qualifies _not_; and _quite_
qualifies _far_. The adverbs _always_ and _carefully_ both qualify the
verb "drive:" the former expresses _time_, and the latter, _manner.
Once_ and _voluntarily_ qualify the verb "contributed;" the former
expresses _number_, and the latter, _manner_. The word _their_ you need
not parse. The active verb _to save_ has no nominative. The nouns _love_
and _friendship_, following _in_, are in the objective case, and
governed by that preposition.
REMARKS ON ADVERBS.
When the words _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like,
are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are _adverbs_; but
when they appear single, they are commonly considered _conjunctions_.
The words _when_ and _where_, and all others of the same nature, such as
_whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise,
while, wherefore_, &c. may be properly called _adverbial conjunctions_,
because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of
adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of _time_ or _place_; of
conjunctions, as they _conjoin sentences_.
There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and,
sometimes as adverbs; as, "_More_ men than women were there; I am _more_
diligent than he." In the former sentence _more_ is evidently an
adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is
an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are
sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "_to-day's_
lesson is longer than _yesterday's_." In this example, _to-day_ and
_yesterday_ are nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the
following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [_to
his] home yesterday_, and will set out again _to-day_." Here they are
nouns, if we supply _on_ before them.
"Where _much [wealth, talent_, or something else] is given, _much
[increase, improvement_] will be required; _Much_ money has been
expended; It is _much_ better to write than starve." In the first two of
these examples, _much_ is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in
the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective _better_. In
short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its
_sense_, or by considering the _manner_ in which it is associated with
other words.
An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an _adverb_ by this
rule: when a word qualifies a _noun_ or _pronoun_, it is an adjective,
but when it qualifies a _verb, participle, adjective_, or _adverb_, it
is an adverb.
Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns
are understood. "He rides _about_;" that is, about the _town, country_,
or some-_thing_ else. "She was _near_ [the _act_ or _misfortune of_]
falling;" "But do not _after_ [that _time_ or _event_] lay the blame on
me." "He came _down_ [the _ascent_] from the hill;" "They lifted him
_up_ [the _ascent_] out of the pit." "The angels _above_;" - above
_us_ - "Above these lower _heavens_, to us invisible, or dimly seen."
Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax,
you may answer these
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
Does an adverb ever qualify a noun? - What parts of speech does it
qualify? - When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it
express? - When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it
generally express? - Compare some adverbs. - By what signs may an adverb
be known? - Give examples. - Repeat some _adverbial phrases_. - Name the
different classes of adverbs. - Repeat some of each class. - Repeat the
order of parsing an adverb. - What rule do you apply in parsing an
adverb?
QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.
Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with
adverbs of place. - Repeat some that are composed of the article _a_ and
nouns. - What part of speech are the words, _therefore, consequently_,
&c.? - What words are styled _adverbial conjunctions_? - Why are they so
called? - Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes
as an adverb? - Give examples. - What is said of _much_? - By what rule can
you distinguish an adjective from an adverb? - Do prepositions ever
become adverbs?
* * * * *
PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially
depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as
language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is
strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that
that nation which continues, through successive generations,
steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the
cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark
is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the
English language as their medium for the transmission of thought.
Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs
and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we
call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I
presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as
copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of
refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by
the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly
demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of
expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does
much for their benefit.
Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or
more words; as, "He did it _here_," for, He did it _in this place;
there_, for, _in that place; where_, for, _in what place; now_, for,
_at this time. Why_ means _for what reason; how - in what mind, mood,
mode_, or _manner; exceedingly - to a great degree; very - in an
eminent degree; often_ and _seldom_ signify _many times, few times_.
The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and
combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most
prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those in _ly_, a
contraction of _like. Gentleman-ly_, means _gentleman-like, like_ a
gentleman. We do not yet say, _ladily_, but _lady-like_. The north
Britons still say, _wiselike, manlike_, instead of, _wisely, manly_.
_Quick_ comes from _gwick_, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verb
_gwiccian_, to vivify, give life. _Quick-ly_ or _live-ly_, means, in
a _quick-like_ or _life-like_ manner; in the manner of a creature
that has _life. Rapid-ly - rapid-like, like a rapid_; a _quick-ly_ or
_swift-ly_ running place in a stream.
_Al-ways_, contraction of _in all ways_. By a slight transition, it
means _in_ or _at all times. Al-one_, contraction of _all-one.
On-ly - one-like. Al-so - all the same_ (thing.) _Ever_ - an _age_. For
_ever_ and _ever_ - for _ages_ and _ages_. Ever is not synonymous
with always. _Never_ - _ne ever_. It signifies _no age, no period of
time. No_, contraction of _not. Not_, a modification of _no-thing,
noth-ing, naught_. "He is _not_ greater" - is greater _in
naught_ - _in no thing_.
_Adrift_ is the past part. _adrifed, adrif'd, adrift_; from the
Saxon _drifan_, or _adrifan_, to drive. _Ago_, formerly written
_ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, is the past part. of the verb _to
go_. It refers to time _gone by. Asunder_, the Saxon past part.
_asundren_, from the verb _sondrian_ or _asondrian_, to separate.
_Aloft - on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft_ being the Anglo-Saxon
word for _air_ or _clouds. Astray_, the part. of _straegan_, to
stray. _Awry_, part. of _wry than_, to writhe.
_Needs_ - _need-is_; anciently, _nedes_, nede is.
To-_wit_, the infinitive of _witan_, to know. It means, _to be
known_. _Ay_ or _yea_ signifies _have it, enjoy it. Yes_ is _ay-es_,
have, possess, enjoy _that_. Our corrupt _o-yes_ of the crier, is
the French imperative, _oyez_, hear, listen. _Straight way_ - by a
straight way. _While - wheel_; period in which some thing _whiles_ or
_wheels_ itself round. _Till_ - to while. _Per_, Latin, - the English
_by_. Perhaps - per haps, per chance. These examples of derivation
are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent
pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke."
* * * * *
QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of
language? - Illustrate the fact. - What is said of _ly, like_, and
_quick_? - How are the following words composed, _always, alone, only,
also_? - What is the meaning of _ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder,
aloft, astray, awry_? - Give the signification of _needs, to-wit, ye,
yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till_, and _per_.
NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes,
in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient.
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as
adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor: - She
writes elegant; He is walking slow.
The adjectives _indifferent, excellent_, and _miserable_, are here
improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of
adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs.
The phrases should, therefore, be, "_indifferently_ honest,
_excellently_ well, _miserably_ poor." _Elegant_ and _slow_ are also
inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the
manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is
_the office_ of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes
_elegantly_; He is walking _slowly_."
You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain
the principles that are violated.
FALSE SYNTAX.
He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.
She reads proper, and writes very neat.
They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor.
The lowering clouds are moving slow.
He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give
offence.
NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of
adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but
_suitably_ to his offence."
The adverb _suitably_ is incorrect. It does not express the manner of
the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes the _quality_ of the
noun _terms_ understood; for which reason it should be an adjective,
_suitable_.
FALSE SYNTAX.
The man was slowly wandering about, _solitarily_ and distressed.
He lived in a manner _agreeably_ to his condition.
The study of Syntax should be _previously_ to that of Punctuation.
He introduced himself in a manner very _abruptly_.
_Conformably_ to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of
gesture.
I saw him _previously_ to his arrival.
LECTURE VII
OF PREPOSITIONS.
A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the
relation between them.
The term _preposition_ is derived from the two Latin words, _pre_, which
signifies _before_, and _pono, to place_. Prepositions are so called,
because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they
govern in the objective case.
The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which
you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to
distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in
composition.
A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.
of, over, at, after, betwixt,
to, under, near, about, beside,
for, through, up, against, athwart,
by, above, down, unto, towards,
with, below, before, across, notwithstanding,
in, between, behind, around, out of,
into, beneath, off, amidst, instead of,
within, from, on upon, throughout, over against,
without, beyond, among, underneath, according to.
This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions,
and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with
the _nature_ of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too,
you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes
any word belongs.
By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it
performs a _double_ office in a sentence, namely, it _connects_ words,
and also shows a _relation_ between them. I will first show you the use
and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is
ripe - October, it is gathered - the field - men - who
go - hill - hill - baskets, - which they put the ears. You perceive, that in
this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us
fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear.
"When corn is ripe, _in_ October, it is gathered _in_ the field _by_
men, who go _from_ hill _to_ hill _with_ baskets, _into_ which they put
the ears."
From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language
would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various
words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but
nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this
office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.;
in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a
connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the
next place I will show you how prepositions express a _relation_ between
words.
The boy's hat is _under_ his arm. In this expression, what relation does
the preposition _under_ show? You know that _hat_ and _arm_ are words
used as signs of two objects, or ideas; but _under_ is _not_ the sign of
a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the _relation_
existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the
word _under_ is the sign of the _relation_ existing between particular
_ideas_, it also expresses a relation existing between the words _hat_
and _arm_, which words are the representatives of those ideas.
The boy holds his hat _in_ his hand. In this sentence the preposition
_in_ shows the relation existing between _hat_ and _hand_, or the
situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And,
if I say, The boy's hat is _on_ his head, you perceive that _on_ shows
the relation between _hat_ and _head_. Again, in the expressions, The
boy threw his hat _up stairs_ - _under_ the bed - _behind_ the
table - _through_ the window - _over_ the house - _across_ the
street - _into_ the water - and so on, you perceive that the several
prepositions express the different relations existing between the _hat_
and the other nouns, _stairs, bed, table, window, house, street_, and
_water_.
A preposition tells _where_ a thing is: thus, "The pear is on the
ground, _under_ the tree."
Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do _not_ express an
action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle
does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the
objective case, because it is the object of the _relation_ expressed by
the preposition, and _not_ the object of an _action_.
I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the _objective case_,
than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed
you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action _or_ of a
relation; and, also, that there are _three_ parts of speech which govern
nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, _active-transitive
verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs_, and _prepositions_. A
noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the
object of an action _and_ of a relation. It must be either the object of
an action _or_ of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember,
that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or
participle, it is the object of an _action_; as, The tutor _instructs_
his _pupils_; or, The tutor is _instructing_ his _pupils_; but whenever
a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a
_relation_; as, The tutor gives good instruction _to_ his _pupils_.
Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review
this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously
recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your
book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course
will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish
to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of
the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an
unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have
learned thus far, you will understand _seven_ parts of speech; and only
_three_ more will remain to be learned.
If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the
following _order_, and then proceed in parsing.
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
_The order of parsing a_ PREPOSITION, is - a preposition, and why? - what
does it connect? - what relation does it show?
"He saw an antelope _in_ the _wilderness."_
_In_ is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show
the relation between them - it connects the words "antelope" and
"wilderness" - and shows the relation between them.
_Wilderness_ is a noun, the name of a place - com. the name of a sort or
species - neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex - third pers. spoken
of - sing. num. it implies but one - and in the objective case, it is the
object of a _relation_ expressed by the preposition "in," and governed
by it, according to
RULE 31. _Prepositions govern the objective case_.
The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before _he_;
Hand the paper to _they_. Prepositions _require_ the pronoun following
them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this
requisition amounts to _government_. Hence we say, "Stand before _him_;"
"Hand the paper to _them_." Every preposition expresses a relation, and
every relation must have an _object_: consequently, every preposition
must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most
excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause,
in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over
nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the
laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of
Egypt.
A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious
man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like
swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales.
At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast;
and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards.
Love still pursues an ever devious race,
True to the winding lineaments of grace.
* * * * *
NOTE. - The words _my_ and _and_ you need not parse. The noun "meteors,"
following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by
_unto_ understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home"
is governed by _to_ understood, according to Rule 32.
REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS.
A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a
preposition understood; as, "Give _him_ that book;" that is, "Give that
book _to_ him;" "Ortugrul was one _day_ wandering," &c. that is, _on_
one day. "Mercy gives _affliction_ a grace;" that is, Mercy gives a
grace _to_ affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.
To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is
requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of
_by_ and _with;_ as, "He walks _with_ a staff _by_ moonlight;" "He was
taken _by_ stratagem, and killed _with_ a sword." Put the one
preposition for the other, and say, "He walks _by_ a staff _with_
moonlight;" "He was taken _with_ stratagem, and killed _by_ a sword;"
and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former
in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.
Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a _preposition;_ as, to
_up_hold, to _with_stand, to _over_look; and this composition gives a
new meaning to the verb; as, to _under_stand, to _with_draw, to
_for_give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb,
and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not
less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all
instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the
verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as _a
part of the verb_. Thus, _to cast_ means _to throw_; but _to cast up_ an
account, signifies _to compute_ it; therefore _up_ is a part of the
verb. The phrases, _to fall on, to bear out, to give over_, convey very
different meanings from what they would if the prepositions _on, out_
and _over_, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called _compound_
verbs.
You may now answer the following
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.