man, we say _he_, and of a woman, _she_; in speaking of one person or
thing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on;
but there is no such variation of the relative. _Who_, in the first of
the preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third
pers. sing.; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the
third, it is of the second pers.; and in the fourth, it is of the first
pers. plur. num.; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each
example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar _form_ to
denote its gend. pers. and num., but it always agrees with its
antecedent _in sense_. Thus, when I say, The _man who_ writes, _who_ is
mas. gend. and sing.; but when I say, The _ladies who_ write, _who_ is
feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and num. of
the relative, you must always look at its antecedent.
WHO, WHICH, and THAT.
_Who_ is applied to _persons, which_ to _things_ and _brutes_; as, "He
is a _friend who_ is faithful in adversity; The _bird which_ sung so
sweetly, is flown; This is the _tree which_ produces no fruit."
_That_ is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent
repetition of _who_ and _which_. It is applied both to persons and
things; as, "_He that_ acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a
_quality that_ highly adorns a woman."
NOTES.
1. _Who_ should never be applied to animals. The following
application of it is erroneous: - "He is like a _least_ of prey,
_who_ destroys without pity." It should be, _that_ destroys, &c.
2. _Who_ should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say,
"The _child whom_ we have just seen," &c. It should be, "The child
_that_ we have just seen."
3. _Which_ may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one
person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as,
"_Which_ of the two? _Which_ of them is he?"
4. _That_, in preference to _who_ or _which_, is applied to persons
when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree,
or by the pronominal adjective _same_; as, "Charles XII., king of
Sweden, was one of the _greatest_ madmen _that_ the world ever
saw; - He is the _same_ man _that_ we saw before."
5. _That_ is employed after the interrogative _who_, in cases like
the following; "Who _that_ has any sense of religion, would have
argued thus?"
When the word _ever_ or _soever_ is annexed to a relative pronoun, the
combination is called a _compound pronoun_; as, _whoever_ or _whosoever,
whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_.
DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
SINGULAR AND PLURAL.
_Nom._ who, _Poss._ whose, _Obj._ whom.
" whoever, " whosever, " whomever.
" whosoever, " whosesoever, " whomsoever.
_Which_ and _that_ are indeclinable, except that _whose_ is sometimes
used as the possessive case of _which_; as, "Is there any other doctrine
_whose_ followers are punished;" that is, the followers _of which_ are
punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers;
but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departure
from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their
applications, should be confined to rational beings.
_That_ may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction,
depending on the office which it performs in the sentence.
_That_ is a relative only when it can be changed to _who_ or _which_
without destroying the sense; as, "They _that_ (who) reprove us, may be
our best friends; From every thing _that_ (which) you see, derive
instruction." _That_ is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to,
or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as,
"Return _that_ book; _That_ belongs to me; Give me _that_." When _that_
is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as,
"Take care _that_ every day be well employed." The word _that_, in this
last sentence, cannot be changed to _who_ or _which_ without destroying
the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither does
it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an
adjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a
conjunction.
If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word _that_,
you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or an
adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and whenever
these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction.
Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you
one example of affronted _that_, which may serve as a caution. The tutor
said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady
parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze.
This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is
strictly grammatical. The first _that_ is a noun; the second, a
conjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the
fifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh,
a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun.
The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; The
tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that _which_ that
lady parsed, was not the that _which_ that gentleman requested her to
analyze.
WHAT.
_What_ is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent
and the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "This is _what_
I wanted;" that is, _that which_, or, _the thing which_ I wanted.
_What_ is compounded of _which that_. These words have been contracted
and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still
retained: _what - wh[ich - t]hat_; (_which-that_.) Anciently it appeared
in the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat_,
and finally, _what_.
_What_ may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection.
When it is equivalent to _that which, the thing which_, or _those things
which_, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the
antecedent and the relative; as, "I will try _what_ (that which) can be
found in female delicacy; _What_ you recollect with most pleasure, are
the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, _those things which_
you recollect, &c.
When _what_ is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two
words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give
it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative,
giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples,
_that_, the antecedent part of _what_, is in the obj. case, governed by
the verb "will try;" _which_, the relative part, is in the nom. case to
"can be found." "I have heard _what_ (i.e. _that which_, or _the thing
which_) has been alleged."
_Whoever_ and _whosoever_ are also compound relatives, and should be
parsed like the compound _what_; as, "_Whoever_ takes that oath, is
bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, _whoever_ is equivalent to
_he who_, or, _the man who_; thus, "_He who_ takes that oath, is bound,"
&c.
_Who, which_, and _what_, when used in asking questions, are called
interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as,
_"Who_ is he? _Which_ is the person? _What_ are you doing?"
Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word
or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as,
"_Whom_ did you see? The _preceptor. What_ have you done? _Nothing_."
Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification.
Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means
following, or coming after. _What_, when used as an interrogative, is
never compound.
_What, which_, and _that_, when joined to nouns, are specifying
adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case,
but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or
indefinite kind; as, "Unto _which_ promise our twelve tribes hope to
come;" "_What_ misery the vicious endure! _What_ havock hast thou made,
foul monster, sin!"
_What_ and _which_, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are
denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "_What man_ is
that? _Which road_ did he take?"
_What, whatever_, and _whatsoever, which, whichever_, and _whichsoever_,
in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not
compound relatives; as, "In _what_ character Butler was admitted, is
unknown; Give him _what_ name you choose; Nature's care largely endows
_whatever_ happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take
_which_ course, or, _whichever_ course he will." These sentences may be
rendered thus; "_That_ character, or, _the_ character in _which_ Butler
was admitted, is unknown; Give him _that_ name, or, _the_ name _which_
you choose; Nature's care endows _that_ happy man _who_ will deign, &c.;
Let him take _that_ course, or _the_ course _which_ he will." A compound
relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These
compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part
of each word being the article _the_, or the adjective pronoun, _that_;
therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives. - With
regard to the word _ever_ annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular
fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined,
_ever_ is entirely excluded from the sentence.
_What_ is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But _what!_ is thy
servant a dog, that he should do this? _What!_ rob us of our right of
suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"
You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so
speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science;
but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your
future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle
elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober
thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative
pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily
comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very
important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or
five times over before you proceed to commit the following order.
Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you
please.
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
_The order of parsing a_ RELATIVE PRONOUN, is - a pronoun, and
why? - relative, and why? - gender, person, and number, and
why? - RULE: - case, and why? - RULE. - Decline it.
"This is the man _whom_ we saw."
_Whom_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun - relative, it relates
to "man" for its antecedent - mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because
the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to
RULE 14. _Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender,
person, and number. Whom_ is in the objective case, the object of the
action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by
it, agreeably to
RULE 16. _When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the
relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its
own member of the sentence_.
_Whom_, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs
it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline
_who_.)
"From _what_ is recorded, he appears," &c.
_What_ is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the
relative, and is equivalent to _that which_, or the _thing
which_ - _Thing_, the antecedent part of _what_, is a noun, the name of a
thing - com. the name of a species - neuter gender, it has no sex - third
person, spoken of - sing. number, it implies but one - and in the obj.
case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from,"
and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which
I refer.) _Which_, the relative part of _what_, is a pronoun, a word
used instead of a noun - relative, it relates to "thing" for its
antecedent - neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the
antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. _Rel
pron_. &c. _Which_ is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded,"
agreeably to
RULE 15. _The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no
nominative comes between it and the verb_.
"_What_ have you learned? Nothing."
_What_ is a pron. a word used, &c. - relative of the interrogative kind,
because it is used in asking a question - it refers to the word "nothing"
for its _subsequent_, according to
RULE 17. _When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the
word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its
subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative.
What_ is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent
"nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. _Rel. pron. agree_, &c. - It
is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive
verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. _When a nom_.
&c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.
NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative
when the answer to the question is _not_ expressed.
WHO, WHICH, WHAT.
Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand.
The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance
with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded
according to their true character, they would be found to be very
simple, and, _doubtless_, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the
learner, would thereby be saved.
Of the words called "relatives," _who_, only, is a pronoun; and this is
strictly _personal_; more so, indeed, if we except _I_ and _we_, than
any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons.
It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. _I, thou, he, she,
it, we, ye, you_, and _they, relate_ to antecedents, as well as _who.
Which, that_, and _what_, are always adjectives. They never _stand for_,
but always _belong_ to nouns, either expressed or implied. They
_specify_, like many other adjectives, and _connect_ sentences.
_Who_ supplies the place of _which_ or _what_ and its _personal noun_.
_Who_ came? i.e. _what man, what woman, what person; - which man, woman_,
or _person_, came? "They heard _what_ I said" - they heard _that_ (thing)
_which_ (thing) I said. "Take _what_ (or _whichever_) course you
please;" - take _that_ course _which_ (course) you please to take.
"_What_ have you done?" i.e. _what thing, act_, or _deed_ have you
done? "_Which thing_ I also did at Jerusalem." "_Which_ will you
take?" - _which book, hat_, or something else? "This is the tree _which_
(tree) produces no fruit." "He _that_ (man, or _which_ man) acts wisely,
deserves praise."
They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty
to adopt it, and parse accordingly.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct,
learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities.
That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts
wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I
believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the
heart, also fortifies it. What doest[5] thou? Nothing. What book
have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry.
Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take?
Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he
said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza,
take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this
republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her
liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the
world, is the enemy of God.
[5] The second person singular of _do_, when used as a principal
verb, is spelled with an _e_; thus, "What thou _doest_, do quickly;"
but when employed as an auxiliary, the _e_ should be omitted; as,
"_Dost_ thou not _behold_ a rock with its head of heath?"
NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and
the objective case, before the verb that governs it. _Whom_, in
every sentence except one, _house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him_,
the third _what_ and _which_, the relative part of the first _two
whats_, are all in the _objective_ case, and governed by the several
verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. _Tree_ is nom.
after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of
_whatever_, is nom. to "fortifies;" _which_, the relative part, is
nom. to "purifies." _Nothing_ is governed by _do_, and _poem_, by
_have_, understood. _Henry_ is nominative to _does_, understood.
_Whose_ and _John's_ are governed according to RULE 12. _I, thou,
you, him_, &c. represent nouns understood. _Him_, in the last
sentence but five, is governed by _declare_, and _I_ is nominative
to _declare. George_ and _Eliza_ are in the nominative case
independent: Rule 5. "_Whatever_ science," &c. is equivalent to,
_that_ science _which_ suits your taste; - "_whichever_ pattern;"
i.e. _that_ pattern _which_ pleases you best. _Whoever_ is a
compound relative; _he_, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will
behold." _Take_ agrees with _you_ understood. _Forsake_ is in the
infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.
REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
_Which_ sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole
sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep
his commandments, _which_ is the whole duty of man." What is the whole
duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this
phrase is the antecedent to _which_.
The conjunction _as_, when it follows _such, many_, or _same_, is
frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with _such
as_ have a refined taste;" that is, with _those who_, or _them who
have_, &c. "Let _such as_ presume to advise others, look well to their
own conduct;" that is, Let _those_, or _them who_ presume, &c. "_As many
as_ were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, _they, those_, or
_all who_ were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the _same_ testimonials
_as_ were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, _those_ testimonials
_which_ were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the
ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, _as_ will be found
to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with _such persons, as those
persons are who_ have a refined taste; Let _such persons, as those
persons are who_ presume," &c.
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
From what words is the term pronoun derived? - Do pronouns always avoid
the repetition of nouns? - Name the three kinds of pronouns. - What
distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns? - How many
personal pronouns are there? - Repeat them. - What belong to pronouns? - Is
gender applied to all the personal pronouns? - To which of them is it
applied? - Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to
denote their gender? - How many persons have pronouns? - Speak them in
their different persons. - How many numbers have pronouns? - How many
cases? - What are they? - Decline all the personal pronouns. - When _self_
is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are
they used? - When is _you_ singular in sense? - Is it ever singular in
form? - Why are the words, _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, called
personal pronouns? - Why are the words, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours,
yours, theirs_, denominated compound pers. pron.? - How do you parse
these compounds? - What is said of _others_? - Repeat the order of parsing
a personal pronoun. - What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the
first person, and in the nom. case? - What rule when the pronoun is in
the possessive case? - What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of
the second and third person? - What Rules in parsing the compounds,
_yours, ours, mine_, &c.? - What is said of the pronoun _it_?
What are adjective pronouns? - Name the three kinds. - What does _each_
relate to? - To what does _every_ relate? - To what does _either_
relate? - What does _neither_ import? - To what do _this_ and _these_
refer? - Give examples. - To what do _that_ and _those_ refer? - Give
examples. - Repeat all the adjective pronouns. - When adj. pronouns belong
to nouns understood, how are they parsed? - When they stand for, or
represent nouns, what are they called? - Give examples. - Repeat the
order of parsing an adj. pronoun. - What Rule do you apply in parsing
the indefinite adjective pronouns? - What Notes, in parsing the
distributives and demonstratives?
What are relative pronouns? - Repeat them. - From what words is the term
antecedent derived? - What does _antecedent_ mean? - Are relatives varied
on account of gender, person, or number? - To what are _who_ and _which_
applied? - To what is _that_ applied? - Should _who_ ever be applied to
irrational beings or children? - In what instances may _which_ be applied
to persons? - Decline the rel. pronouns. - Can _which_ and _that_ be
declined? - Is _that_ ever used as three parts of speech? - Give
examples. - What part of speech is the word _what_? - Is _what_ ever used
as three kinds of a pronoun? - Give examples. - What is said of
_whoever_? - What words are used as interrogative pronouns? - Give
examples. - When are the words, _what, which_, and _that_, called adj.
pron.? - When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives? - What
is said of _whatever_ and _whichever_? - Is _what_ ever used as an
interjection? - Give examples. - Repeat the order of parsing a rel.
pron. - What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative? - What Rules in
parsing a compound relative? - What Rules in parsing an
interrogative? - Does the relative _which_ ever relate to a sentence for
its antecedent? - When does the conjunction _as_ become a relative? - Give
examples.
EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it
must be in the nominative case.
Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?
"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun _him_ is the subject of the
verb _will go_ understood, therefore him should be in the nominative
case, _he_, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) _Him_ and I
are connected by the conjunction _and_, and _him_ is in the obj. case,
and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.)
In the second and third examples, _thee_ should be _thou_, according to
the NOTE. The verbs, _does_ and _is_, are of the third person, and the
nom. _thou_ is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the
second person, _dost do_ and _art_, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct
the other examples, _four_ times over.
FALSE SYNTAX.
Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is
careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the
man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater
proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was
there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of
honor bestowed upon him.
NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of
nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with
the noun which they represent.
FALSE SYNTAX.
The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many
words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many
victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about
doing good, they are continually doing evil.
In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be
omitted, according to Note 2.
NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not
be used instead of _these_ and _those_.
FALSE SYNTAX.
Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men
their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons
deserves most credit?
In all these examples, _those_ should be used in place of _them_. The
use of the personal, _them_, in such constructions, presents two
objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may
be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.
* * * * *
LECTURE IX.
OF CONJUNCTIONS.
A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect
sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound
sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou _and_ he are
happy, _because_ you are good."
Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in
different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human
thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.
The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, _con_, which
signifies _together_, and _jungo_, to _join_. A conjunction, then, is a
word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully
comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite
that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and
a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect
sentences.
A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.
A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb
which agrees with that nominative; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field."
You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the
nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence
containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and
one _finite_ verb, (that is, a verb _not_ in the infinitive mood,) it is
a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.
A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences
connected together; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field, and _men reap_ it."
This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences
joined together by the word _and_; which word, on account of its
connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence
without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat
grows in the field. Men reap it."
The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated.
After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish
to _add_ another, or several others, which are closely connected with
it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus,
"The Georgians cultivate rice _and_ cotton;" that is, "They cultivate
rice _add_ cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of
the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences:
thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The
conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes
connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the
preposition; as, "The sun _and (add)_ the planets constitute the solar
system." In this, which is a simple sentence, _and_ connects two
_words_.
A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of
this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it.
The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no
relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He
labors harder - more successfully - I do. That man is healthy - he is
temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with
conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus,
He labors harder _and_ more successfully _than_ I do. That man is
healthy _because_ he is temperate.
Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.
I. The Conjunction _Copulative_ serves to connect and continue a
sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a
supposition, or a cause; as, "Two _and_ three are five; I will go _if_
he will accompany me; You are happy _because_ you are good."
In the first of these examples, _and_ joins on a word that expresses an
_addition_; in the second, _if_ connects a member that implies a
_supposition_ or _condition_; and in the third, _because_ connects a
member that expresses a _cause_.
II. The Conjunction _Disjunctive_ serves to connect and continue a
sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning;
as, "They came with her, _but_ they went away without her."
_But_ joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only
something added, but, also, _opposition_ of meaning.
The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following _lists_, which
you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however,
frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you
study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be
at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.
LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.
_Copulative_. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore,
wherefore, provided, besides.
_Disjunctive_. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either,
neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas,
as well as.
Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that,
in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the
former; as,
1. _Though_ - _yet_ or _nevertheless_; as, "_Though_ he was rich, _yet_
for our sakes he became poor."
2. _Whether_ - _or_; as, "_Whether_ he will go, _or_ not, I cannot tell."
It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or _no_."
3. _Either_ - _or_; as, "I will _either_ send it, _or_ bring it myself."
4. _Neither - nor_; as, "_Neither_ thou _nor_ I can comprehend it."
5. _As_ - _as_; as, "She is _as_ amiable _as_ her sister."
6. _As_ - _so_; as, "_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be."
7. _So_ - _as_; as, "To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the
sanctuary."
8. _So_ - _that_; as, "He became _so_ vain, _that_ everyone disliked
him."
NOTES.
1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple _sentences_ only,
and form them into compound _sentences_; such as, further, again,
besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple _members_ only,
so as to make them compound _members_; such as, than, lest, unless,
that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and,
therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or
simple members.
2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect
sentences; as, "Blessed is the man _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_
keepeth his commandments."
You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five
times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may
parse the subsequent exercises.
SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
_The order of parsing a_ CONJUNCTION, is - a conjunction, and
why? - copulative or disjunctive, and why? - what does it connect?
"Wisdom _and_ virtue _form_ the good man's character." _And_ is a
conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in
this example it connects only words - copulative, it serves to connect
and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an
addition - it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."
_Wisdom_ is a noun, the name of a thing - (You may parse it in
full.) - _Wisdom_ is one of the nominatives to the verb "form."
_Virtue_ is a noun, the name, &c. - (Parse it in full:) - and in the nom.
case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and,
according to RULE 33. _Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the
same case_.
_Form_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c. - of the third
person, _plural_, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are
connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. _Two or more
nouns in the singular number, joined by_ copulative _conjunctions, must
have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ plural.
"Wisdom _or_ folly _governs_ us." _Or_ is a conjunction, a word that is
chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects
words - disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the
sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of
meaning - it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."
_Governs_ is a verb, a word that signifies, &e. - of the third person,
singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to
RULE 9. _Two or more nouns singular, joined by_ disjunctive
_conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them
in the_ singular:
If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules
presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For
example; in the sentence, "Orlando _and_ Thomas, _who study their
lessons, make_ rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns,
_Orlando_ and _Thomas_, are connected by the copulative conjunction
_and_, therefore the verb _make_, which agrees with them, is plural,
because it expresses the action of _both_ its nominatives or actors. And
you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _their_, and the noun
_lessons_, are _plural_, agreeing with the nouns _Orlando_ and _Thomas_,
according to RULE 8. The verb _study_ is plural, agreeing with _who_,
according to RULE 4.
But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see
how the sentence will read: "Orlando _or_ Thomas, _who studies his
lesson, makes_ rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different
construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that
Orlando and Thomas, _both_ study and make rapid progress; but it
asserts, that either the one _or_ the other studies, and makes rapid
progress. Hence the verb _makes_ is singular, because it expresses the
action of the one _or_ the other of its nominatives. And you observe,
too, that the pronouns _who_ and _his_, and the noun _lesson_, are
likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando _or_ Thomas, agreeably
to RULE 9. _Studies_ is also singular, agreeing with _who_, according to
RULE 4.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars,
admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend,
because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their
teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher,
improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind
happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and
interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity.
Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as
Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.
NOTE. The verb _form_ is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular,
connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb
_comfort_ agrees with _they_ for its nominative. It is connected to
_support_ by the conjunction _and_, agreeably to RULE 34. _Angels_ is
nom. to _are_ understood, and _Great Britain_ is nom. to _can boast_
understood, according to RULE 35.
REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.
The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an
adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, _for_ it was in vain to resist;"
in this example, _for_ is a conjunction, because it connects the two
members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and
governs _victory_ in the objective case: "He contended _for_ victory
only."
In the first of the following sentences, _since_ is a conjunction; in
the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "_Since_
we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him _since_ that
time; Our friendship commenced long _since._"
"He will repent _before_ he dies; Stand _before_ me; Why did you not
return _before_" [that or this _time_;] in the first of these three
examples, _before_ is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses
time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.
As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its
members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may
sometimes be at a loss to perceive the _connecting_ power of a
preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction
connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences.
Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its
members are transposed; as, "_In_ the days of Joram, king of Israel,
flourished the prophet Elisha;" "_If_ thou seek the Lord, he will be
found of thee; but, _if_ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for
ever."
"_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay,
"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"
That the words _in, if_, and _when_, in these examples, connect the
members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will
obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order,
and bring these particles _between_ the members which they connect:
thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished _in_ the days of Joram, king of
Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee _if_ thou seek him; but he will
cast thee off for ever _if_ thou forsake him:"
"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind,
"_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay?"
As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT
ANSWERED IN PARSING.
From what words is the term conjunction derived? - What is a
sentence? - What is a simple sentence? - What is a compound
sentence? - Give examples. - In what respect do conjunctions and
prepositions agree in their nature? - How many sorts of conjunctions are
there? - Repeat the lists of conjunctions. - Repeat some conjunctions with
their corresponding conjunctions. - Do relative pronouns ever connect
sentences? - Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction. - Do you apply any
Rule in parsing a conjunction? - What Rule should be applied in parsing
a noun or pronoun connected with another? - What Rule in parsing a verb
agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative
conjunction? - What Rule when the nouns are connected by a
disjunctive? - In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction,
what Rule do you apply? - Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of
speech? - Give examples. - What is said of the words _for, since_, and
_before?_ - What is said of the transposition of sentences?
* * * * *
PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
On scientific principles, our _connectives_, commonly denominated
prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the
distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions
unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are
derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps,
in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.
"I wish you to believe, _that_ I would not wilfully hurt a fly."