for the use of the inhabitants. For certain reasons it has
been assumed that villages and hamlets and rural districts
generally could not be so supplied, and the conditions as to
water supply continue much as they have been from time
immemorial. In rural districts, especially of an agricultural
character, the inhabitants are very conservative in character,
too prone to be satisfied with things as they are, and too
lethargic to strongly desire or to express a desire for change,
especially if such, change will throw any additional burden
on the rates. What was good enough for their forefathers
is good enough for them. They have grown up under con-
ditions to which they have become accustomed, and their
exceedingly limited experience of other conditions does not
enable them to comprehend the advantages which may be
derived from a change. Where a public supply has been
introduced into a village, it has frequently been as the result
of an outbreak of some disease, an epidemic which, in all
probability, would have been avoided had a proper supply
been obtained earlier. In rural districts also the population
is scattered. A parish may contain a fairly compact village,
or it may contain one or more groups of houses which may
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RURAL AND VILLAGE WATER SUPPLIES 401
be called hamlets, or the cottages may be scattered over the
whole area. In any case, to supply a given number of houses
much longer mains are required than in a town, and the
cost of obtaining a public supply is proportionately increased.
Again, the wages earned in the country are much lower than
in the towns, and the poorer classes are the less able to bear
any additional burden in the form of rates. Unfortunately,
also, landowners and property owners generally are affected
by the depressed state of agriculture, and do not look with
favour upon any scheme which, however much it may benefit
the inhabitants, will not apparently confer any immediate
benefit upon themselves, or an advantage in their opinion
not commensurate with the expense they will have to bear.
Still another difficulty arises from the fact that under the
Public Health (Water) Act, 1878, no newly -erected house
can be inhabited without the Sanitary Authority having certi-
fied that there is within a reasonable distance an available
supply of wholesome water. There is no definition of the
words "reasonable distance," "available supply," and
"wholesome," and they are very differently interpreted by
different authorities. By some, a quarter of a mile is con-
sidered a " reasonable distance," a water obtained on suffrance
from a neighbour's property is considered "available," and
tank water, pond, or even ditch water is considered " whole-
some." A well water is almost invariably considered to be
good whatever its source or the character of the surroundings
of the well. In growing villages, therefore, we have often a
large proportion of the houses rejoicing in the possession of
these certificates, and if the Authority or its officers propose
a public supply they are forthwith produced to prove that
such is not required. If an owner has really been put to
considerable expense to obtain a reasonably good water, it
seems somewhat unjust that he should afterwards be called
upon to contribute towards a similar benefit being conferred
upon the tenants of other properties, whose owners have
failed to obtain such a supply. In rural districts, also, the
2d
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402 WATER SUPPLIES
officers employed rarely receive such remuneration as secures
the services of men with wide experience, capable of working
out the details of a waterworks scheme, and presenting it
to the Authority so as to show its feasibility and convince
them of its great advantages or of its necessity. Unless
they are able to do this there is little likelihood of public
water supplies being generally adopted in our villages and
rural districts. The initial expense of calling in an engineer
will have to be borne by the general rates unless a scheme
be ultimately accepted and carried out. At this stage it
may be doubtful whether it be possible to obtain a supply
at a reasonable cost, and the Authority naturally hesitates at
incurring this expense. I am perfectly convinced that none
of the parishes in my districts, which are now enjoying all
the advantages of having water mains ramifying in their
midst, would ever have been so supplied had not the Surveyor
been able to draw up all the details of the various schemes,
prepare the plans, and superintend the carrying out of the
works. Confidence engendered by the successful execution
of one scheme, and the ultimate expressions of appreciation
by those who at first opposed the innovation (for these are
usually the first to acknowledge its advantages), pave the
way for further extensions, and make each successive step in
the march of sanitary progress less difficult.
That the water supplies of our parishes, derived from
shallow wells, pools, ponds, land springs, rain-water tanks,
or the hawker's cart, are often miserably inadequate in
quantity, and most unsatisfactory in quality, requires no
proof beyond that already given in preceding chapters of
this work. Neither is it necessary to dwell upon the
advantages of having an abundant supply of pure water
which can be drawn from the tap at the very door, or,
better still, within the house, so conducing to the cleanliness
of person, cleanliness of the household, and of the parish
generally. Cleanliness may not be next to godliness, but
its importance in maintaining health and vigour is too well
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RURAL AND VILLAGE WATER SUPPLIES 403
established to need further demonstration. It is much to
be regretted that whilst this is universally admitted with
reference to man, it still ap]>ears to t>e entirely ignored with
regard to cattle. Yet, the vital processes in the one are
so closely akin to those in the other that it does not admit
of reasonable doubt that all the conditions which make for
health in the one are necessary for the other. Of especial
importance to us, however, is cleanliness in connection with
milch cows and dairy farms, since in this country it is the
almost universal custom to consume the milk raw. Milk
contains all the necessary ingredients for sup{>orting life ;
not only the life of the higher types of the animal kingdom,
but also that of those lowest forms, be they animal or veget-
able, the so-called microbes, many of which, when they gain
access to the human system, are capable of producing disease.
Some of these multiply with extraordinary rapidity when
introduced into milk, and alarming outbreaks of disease
have been traced to such infected milk. There is little
doubt that many of these epidemics could have been pre-
vented had the cattle been supplied with more wholesome
water, had the milk -cans been cleansed with pure water,
and had the teats of the cows and the milker's hands been
clean. The importance of an abundant supply of pure water
for dairies and dairy-farms is an additional argument in
favour of public rural supplies.
Where water mains are laid in rural districts, the erection
of cottages and houses is encouraged, since the owners are no
longer under the necessity of sinking wells, constructing rain-
water tanks, fixing pumps, etc., with their initial expense and
perpetual trouble to keep in repair. Very often the interest
on the original expenditure for a well and pump exceeds that of
the water rate which would suffice to pay for a public supply.
The difficulties in the way of supplying thinly-populated
areas with water have been greatly overrated, and probably
in few cases are they insurmountable. In recommending a
really good scheme, one can always feel the utmost confidence
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4 04 WATER SUPPLIES
in asserting that, however much it may be opposed by those
intended to be benefited, and local opposition always arises
when a Sanitary Authority decides to provide waterworks,
the works will not be in existence long before the growlings
are replaced by grateful acknowledgments of the boon con-
ferred. Simple and inexpensive supplies can often be
obtained by collecting the water from a spring, and laying
mains from the reservoir or tank to hydrants along the route.
Where pumping is necessary the motive power may often be
obtained by aid of a ram, turbine, or water-wheel, at a
reasonable initial expense, and at a cost of very few shillings
per year for attention and repairs. If these machines cannot
be utilised, a windmill may be employed; although, on
account of the large size of the storage tank necessary, the
expense in the first instance will be somewhat greater. Gas,
oil, and hot-air engines also require but little attention, and
only such as can be given by an intelligent labourer. The
weekly labour bill, however, is an important item when the
works are small, but sometimes a supply of water near at
hand can be utilised by pumping with one of these machines,
whereas the nearest source available for working a ram or
similar machine may be a considerable distance away. In
such a case the cost of pumping may be less than the interest
on the extra outlay which would be involved in laying the
additional mains.
In connection with this subject it will probably be of
interest to record what has been done in a few districts in
the way of supplying water to villages, hamlets, and scattered
cottages therein. What has been done here may be done
elsewhere, and the examples given, showing how certain
difficulties have been overcome, may be incentives to others
to attempt to do for our rural districts what has already been
so well done for our towns.
The Nantwich Rural Sanitary Authority 1 may fairly
1 " Public Waterworks for Rural Districts." J. A. Davenport, C.E.,
Surveyor, Nantwich, R.S.D. {Sanitary Record, 3rd March 1894).
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RURAL AND VILLAGE WATER SUPPLIES 405
claim to be pioneers in carrying water mains through thinly-
populated rural districts. They commenced in 1878 by
supplying the township of Church Coppenhall, and since
then the mains have been extended, until, at the end of 1893,
the Authority had supplied, in 32 townships, 2817 houses,
with a population of upwards of 14,000. There are 93
miles of mains, and extensions involving the laying of 27
more miles have been decided upon. "The cottages are
supplied with water, pure in quality, plentiful in quantity,
and conveniently at hand, with taps within each house, at
twopence farthing per week." This payment by the tenants,
however, does not cover the whole cost of the supply. The
mode in which this is defrayed is thus described by Mr.
Davenport, the engineer and surveyor to the district.
" Supposing the cost of a water supply to a township is
£1000, the annual charge upon that amount borrowed from
the Public Works Loan Commissioners would be about £60
per annum, which would clear off principal and interest in
thirty years. Supposing there are sixty houses to be supplied,
the annual cost of furnishing the water, founded upon the
average quantity of water consumed per house (as shown in
the Authority's statistical tables from actual measurement
and cost), would be about £18 per annum, making a total
expenditure of £78 per annum. Taking thirty of the houses
to bring in 20s. each per annum to the water rate, and the
other thirty to bring in 10s. each, which is the minimum,
the water rate would only raise £45 per annum, leaving a
deficiency against the township of £33 per annum for thirty
years. By the system of guarantee referred to (a guarantee
on the part of the owners of estates benefited, to pay a sum
not exceeding 6d. per acre per annum for thirty years), the
owners of property step in and pay this, and where either
the whole, or a considerable portion of a township, is
supplied by these public mains, Id. in the pound, if
needed, is contributed by the general township rate, in
reduction of the 4 enc i encv - I* W *N make some little
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4 o6 WATER SUPPLIES
difference at first, whether the money is lent to be repaid
by equal annual instalments, or annual instalments of prin-
cipal and interest ; in the former case, the instalments being
the same each and every year, and in the latter they are
rather heavier for the first fifteen years, and lighter for the
last fifteen years." This system of guarantee has been very
successful in this district, and several landowners have also
given considerable amounts for the laying of mains for the
benefit of property with which they are connected.
Spring and Ram. — In Chapter V. reference was made
to a water supply in one of the Essex rural districts.
The water, which was first carried to the village of Danbury
only, is derived from a public spring on the common, a mile
away and 180 feet below the highest point to be supplied.
By aid of a ram the water is raised into a tank of 4000
gallons capacity, elevated on a small tower placed on the
highest point in the village. It flows through 3 miles of
mains, and communicating pipes are laid on to about 60
houses, and stand pipes in the lanes supply the remainder.
The whole parish contains 195 inhabited houses and 839
inhabitants, and its area is 3495 acres. The total cost was
£807. Only the houses actually supplied — that is, which
have the water laid on, or are within 200 feet of a stand
pipe — are rated. The rate is Is. in the pound, and produces,
within £2, the whole annual sum required to pay off the
principal and interest in thirty years. The sole burden
upon the general sanitary rate is this £2 per annum, and
this alone affects the land. As the cottages are rated at £4
on the average, the tenants enjoy an abundant supply of
water for the modest sum of 4 s. per year.
Spring and Gravitation Works. — In 1893 the water
running to waste after serving the Danbury ram was caused
to supply by gravitation portions of four other parishes. The
district is very poor and thinly populated. About 15,000
yards of 4-inch and 3-inch, and 1000 yards of 2-inch mains
have been laid, and the water laid on to every house en route
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RURAL AND VILLAGE WATER SUPPLIES 407
(277 at present). Only a few stand pipes have Ixsen fixed.
The cost was under £3000. All cottages are rated at 8s. 8d.
per year (2d. per week), and larger houses at Is. 6<L in
the pound of their rateable value. This produces nearly
sufficient to pay the annual instalments of principal and
interest. At the present time the Authority is contemplating
very considerable extensions (into adjacent parishes), since
applications for the water to be laid on are numerous.
Where the houses are far from the mains the owners requir-
ing the water defray the whole or a portion of the cost of
laying a service main (vide p. 64).
Spring and Ram. — In another small village in one of my
districts a spring rising at the outskirts supplies a ram,
which pumps water into a tower supported upon iron
columns. The tank has a capacity of 1200 gallons. The
water is laid on to several houses and to stand pipes in the
street. The total cost was only £200 ; a portion was raised
by subscription, and the remainder paid out of the rates, the
payment being extended over three years.
Spring and Steam Pumping. — In another parish, with 321
houses and a population of 1303, a water supply has been
inaugurated which furnishes water to about two -thirds of
the population. Over a spring yielding some 30,000 gallons
of water per day a covered tank holding 12,000 gallons has
been constructed. Upon a brick tower, 70 feet high, a
wrought-iron tank holding 15,000 gallons has been fixed.
The water is raised from the spring to the tank by a six
h.p. engine, through 4 -inch suction and rising mains.
From the tank it flows through over 2 miles of mains 4-inch,
3-inch, and 2-inch in diameter, to supply the village. The
total cost, including the land and spring (which are in an
adjoining parish), was slightly over £2000. The cost of
pumping, including wages, is about £45 a year. The loan
and interest is being repaid in equal half-yearly instalments,
spread over a term of thirty years. An annual sum of £25
is paid for the water supplied to a malt kiln, and a small
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4 o8 WATER SUPPLIES
sum is paid out of the general rate for the water used for
road watering, etc. ; the balance is raised by a rate of Is. 4d.
in the pound levied on the users of the water.
Subsoil Water raised by Steam Pump. — In an adjoining
parish, haying a population of 2334, of which about 1700
are supplied with water from the public mains, subsoil water
is raised by pumping into a tank of 12,000 gallons capacity
situated on a brick tower, from which it passes by gravitation
to supply numerous stand pipes in the village. Year by
year the demand for water increases as a larger proportion
of the houses desire to have the supply laid on. During
the first year the amount used only averaged 5 gallons per
head per diem, but in five years it has increased to 15
gallons. The total cost was £2300, and this is being paid
off by sixty equal half-yearly instalments of principal and
interest. The parish pays «£25 per year for the water used
for sewer flushing and street watering. The cost of pumping,
including wages, is about £45. The water rate is only Is. in
the pound, and is levied only on the consumers of the water.
Subsoil Water Gravitation Works. — Another village in one
of my districts, with a population of about 1000, is supplied
by gravitation works from two chains of wells sunk in the
sand on rising ground outside the village. The water flows
directly on to two small filter beds of sand and polarite,
from which it passes into a small covered reservoir, and
thence into the mains. The cost of the works is being paid
off by a rate of 9d. in the pound. As the filters require
attention, and the water is turned off during the night, a
man is paid a small sum annually for taking charge of the
works. There are no stand pipes, the water being laid on
to all the houses.
Spring Water raised by a Water-wheel. — The hamlet of
Cressbrook, near Buxton, Derbyshire, has recently been
supplied with spring water by pumping, and the following
description of the works has been furnished by the engineers,
Messrs. J. and J. Webster of Bridge Street, Buxton : —
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RURAL AND VILLAGE WATER SUPPLIES 409
" The spring water is conveyed for a distance of 400 yards
through 3-inch cast-iron pii>es, where it is delivered into a
cistern of 120 gallons capacity. The i>ower is obtained for
driving the pump with a breast water wheel, 8 feet diameter
by 4 feet wide, constructed of iron and Siemens steel. The
driving water x to the wheel is also carried a distance of 400
yards. To the water-wheel is attached a three-cylinder pump,
specially designed and constructed by us, to meet the exceed-
ing high pressure (200 lbs. j>er square inch) and give a constant
flow. The water is drawn from the above cistern and delivered
through 1125 feet of 3-inch pipe to the reservoir, situated
410 feet higher than the pump. The reservoir has a capacity
of 35,000 gallons, and is cut out of the solid limestone rock,
which is lined with a wall 2 feet thick, then lined with bricks
set in cement, and further grouted between the brickwork
and wall with fine, clean gravel and cement. The reservoir
is divided into two halves, so that one half can be working
whilst the other half is being cleaned out. The supply to
the houses, Cressbrook Hall, and mills is through 3-inch cast-
iron gravitation pipes. The taps are enclosed in cast-iron
boxes, specially designed to protect them from frost. Provision
has been made at the mills to use the water in case of fire.
When tested with a hydrant it was found that a stream of
water could be thrown about 20 feet higher than the roof
of the mills. The total length of pipes is about 2 miles.
All the cast-iron pipes are coated by Dr. Angus Smith's
process. The quantity of water guaranteed to t>e delivered
into the reservoir is from 3000 to 4000 gallons per day, but
12,000 gallons can be delivered without running wheel and
pumps at an excessive speed."
The total cost was a little under £1000, and was borne by
the owner of the estate. The water is laid on to 15 stand
pipes for the supply of the cottages, and a charge of lid.
per week is made for the use of the water.
Deep -well Water raised by a Windmill. - At Lcchlade,
1 Derived from the river Wye.
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410 WATER SUPPLIES
Gloucestershire, a windmill has been successfully used for
supplying the village with water. The population is 1250,
and the number of inhabitants supplied about 1000. The
windmill was made by the Ontario Company, and has sails
of 18 feet diameter. The pumps are double-action, with
4-inch cylinders. A tank capable of holding 60,000 gallons
of water is supported on a brick tower 10 feet high, in which
the pumps are placed, and on the top of this is the windmill
working a shaft passing through the tanks to the pumps
which are directly over the well. The well is a tubular one
4 inches in diameter, driven to a depth of 24 feet through a
bed of clay into water-bearing gravel. The windmill has an
automatic action, shutting off when the tank is full and
collapsing when the wind pressure is beyond that for which
the sails are set. The supply has never failed during the
four years the works have been in existence, the storage in
the tank having proved ample to tide over the calm periods
when the pumps were out of action. The water is supplied
to stand pipes in the streets, but any house can have it laid
on by paying a rate of 10s. a year. The money was borrowed
by the Sanitary Authority and has to be paid off in thirty
years. The water rate is 3d. in the pound. Messrs. Johns
Brothers, Lechdale Foundry, carried out the scheme, from
the designs of Mr. J. H. Bardfield, London. The total cost
of the works was £1800.
Spring Water supplied by Gravitation. — The village of
Winfrith, Dorsetshire, has been supplied with water from a
spring at the outskirts. The works were designed and
carried out by Messrs. Foster, Lott, and Co. of Dorchester.
The springhead is situated on the hillside above the rectory
farm and close to the Chaldon road. The water springs from
the limestone rock, and is not only of analytical purity but
is remarkably clear and sparkling. It is collected at the very
springhead into a perforated iron container, and there has
been placed around the outside of the container several
hundred loads of flint, gravel, and chalk. There is a 12-inch
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RURAL AND VILLAGE WATER SUPPLIES 411
overflow, the surplus water running into the brook course.
The container and chamber are hermetically sealed, and the
water is beyond all possible chance of contamination from
the foul Chaldon brook, nor can it be intentionally polluted.
From the spring the water is conveyed by 4-inch cast-iron
pipes into the village, and waste-preventing hydrants of the
latest pattern are placed at convenient distances for public use.
There is quite an 18 feet head at the spring, and an ample
pressure to carry the water many miles farther if required.
All the valves are Lambert's high-pressure diaphragm valves,
of the same pattern as at the Dorchester Waterworks, as also
are the boxes and castings. There is an entire absence of
expense after the initial outlay, the water being conveyed by
the natural force of gravity to the various deliveries.
Spring Water pumped by a Turbine. — The waterworks at
West Lulworth, referred to in Chapter XIX., were also de-
signed and constructed by the same firm. An attempt to
supply West Lulworth with water was made about ten years
ago, a spring on the Bindon Hills having been tapped and
pipes laid on to various points. This was opened in May 1886,
the whole cost having been borne by the Weld estate ; but
from the first it was found to be wholly inadequate. The
reservoirs and pipes being intact — the former situated on the
hillside quite 300 feet above the sea-level — it was suggested
that the same plant might be utilised. Attention was directed
to the great spring under the rocks close to the cove, and Mr.
Foster was consulted. A portion of the water is conveyed
from the spring to the old mill-pond on the other side of the
road, which has been thoroughly cleared out and now forms
quite an ornamental lake, to pump the supply to the reservoirs