cent.; Illinois, 275.46 per cent.; Missouri, 394.10 per cent. It will be
n thai greater proportionate progress was made in the Western States
than in those portions of the country which are near the Atlantic coast.
Sir Morton Peto, whose remarks were based upon the returns given in
the census of 1860, says: "Many branches of manufacturing industry in
America are, at the present time, very little developed. The manufactures
of which they chiefly speak are those of agricultural implements and sew-
ing-machines [see American Inventions], of both of which they are
justly proud; of cotton and woollen goods (in the production of which
they have been making very rapid advances); of furniture, clocks, jew-
elry and musical instruments, with which they now mainly supply them-
selves; and clothing and boots and shoes, which a quarter of a century
ago were almost all imported, and which are now almost entirely home-
mad.." An examination of the figures which we have given will show a
marked advance in many other branches, to which Sir Morton does not
refer, as their statistics would bear heavily against his pet theory that
America is "essentially agricultural, and by no means essentially commer-
cial or manufacturing." To do him justice, however, he could not be
expected to realize the advance made in many of the "very little devel-
oped" branches during the decade in which he was writing (1860-1870) —
an advance which surprised even the mosl sanguine of our own citizens.
Even Bincethe year 1870 progress has been made in some branches (in the
production of cutlery, tor instance), which has made itself felt in advance
of published Statistics, and the extent of which may be estimated by the
anxiety exhibited by those in foreign countries who are engaged in these
manufactures and by the marked decrease in the quantity and value of
the products of these industries, which are imported into this country.
THE SIGNAL SEKYIOE BUKEAIT.
01ST the 9th of February, 1870, a resolution of Congress was approved
by the President which provided " that the Secretary of War be, and
he hereby is, authorized and required to provide for taking meteorological
observations at the military stations in the interior of the continent and at
other points in the States and Territories of the United States, and for
giving notice on the Northern lakes and on the sea-coast, by magnetic tel-
egraph and marine signals, of the apj^roach and force of storms." The
adoption of this resolution marks an era in the history of American
science, being a striking proof of the advance made in this country in the
appreciation of the efforts of those pioneers who once incurred ridicule by
their persevering efforts to learn and to expound " the law of storms." For
many years a number of men who loved science for its own sake took
observations day after day, noting the state of thermometer and barome-
ter, the direction and speed of the wind, the nature of the clouds, etc., and
carefully kept the records for transmission to the Smithsonian Institution
at Washington, to the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, or to some other
similar organization or institution under the auspicies of which their
labors had been undertaken. It must be candidly confessed that these
volunteer meteorologists did not receive the credit which they deserved.
Too frequently they were called in derision " clerks of the weather," and
were considered harmless enthusiasts who might as well amuse themselves
in that way as in any other. We can remember the time when the
Smithsonian Institution was ridiculed by some would-be scientists as a place
established to give the inhabitants of the city of Washington news con-
cerning approaching changes of the weather. The "clerks of the weather"
disregarded this ridicule and steadily worked out problem after problem,
until the knowledge of the meteorology of this country was placed upon so
firm a basis that Congress was not merely justified in passing the above reso-
lution, but was obliged to do so in order to meet the demands of an enlight-
ened public opinion. It must be admitted, however, that this appreciation
of the importance of the measure in question was not universal, and that
the new system, like all reforms, was obliged to work its way gradually into
public favor. At one place the opposition even went so far as an expression
of hostility, of which a more specific account will be hereafter given. The
617
618 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES
Chambers of Commerce and the Boards of Trad'' of the Atlantic and
Western cities took great interesl in the matter, and many of them ap-
pointed "meteorological committees" to further by every means in their
power the establishment and continuance of signal stations in their respec-
tive localities.
Tin- carrying out of the objects of the above resolution was entrusted to
Brevet lier-General Albert J. Myer, the chief signal officer of the
army, whom the newspapers, with their usual facility in constructing
nicknames, speedily honored with the sobriquet of "Old Probabilities."
Be asked for very small appropriations — $15,000 for the fiscal year ending
dun. 30, 1 870, and $20,000 for the following fiscal year, ending June 30,
1871. Such economy would not have been possible if the observations
(or nearly all of them) had not been conducted by army officers. The
organization of the corps of observers was not an easy task. No similar
body of men had ever been raised, organized and equipped. Those who
were to perform the actual work were put on duty, according to Captain
Howgate, "after a hurried course of study, and without, in many cat
any previous knowledge of even ordinary military duty.'' The energy of
those in charge overcame every obstacle. Thermometers, barometers, hy-
grometers (for measuring the moisture of the atmosphere), rain gauges
and anemometers, or wind gauges, were speedily procured, army corre-
spondents were selected and installed, and on Nov. 1, 1870, at 7.35 A. M.,
the first systematized synchronous meteoric reports ever taken in the United
States were read from the instruments by the observer-sergeants of the
; :i.-il Service at twenty-four stations, and placed upon the telegraphic
wires for transmission. With the delivery of these reports at Washington
and at the other cities and ports to which it had been arranged that they
should be sent commenced the practical working of the portion of the
Signal Service then known as the "Division of Telegrams and Reports for
Benefit of Commerce," to which title the words "and Agriculture"
have since been added. The bulletin published in Washington on this
day is found in the Report of the Chief Signal Officer for b s 71 i page 64),
and it is interesting as one of the first results of a service "which has do
holiday- and can know no rest ; the labors of which continue equally
throughout every night as well as every .lay, and to the vigilance of which
has been entrusted responsibility extending not only to property, but pos-
sibly to the life of any citizen of the United Slates." As soon as the
working of the organization thus toted had proved a success, and there
was no longer any doubt that the reports would be correctly and promptly
re© ' i '1. ii bi came a duty to provide in Borne way for giving notice of the
approach of storms which the reports often heralded. The need of this
duty v lecially urgent upon the lake-, along which the first storm-
warning was telegraphed and bulletined on the 8th of November, 1870.
CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 619
Upon the 2d of August, 1871, a pamphlet was issued from the chief sig-
nal office at Washington which was designed " to put it in the power of
the largest number to make use of and to profit by the labors of this
office ; to enable them to test and to avail themselves of some of the laws
and generalizations by which meteorologists are guided ; aud to afford the
means by which at once to supplement, judge of and aid the work of the
department." This pamphlet contains, besides valuable scientific infor-
mation, the following important note: "In the weather synopses and prob-
abilities emanating from the signal office, different parts of the country
are thus designated : Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,
Connecticut and Rhode Island are alluded to as the New Ear/land States
or the North-east, or simply as the Eastern States; New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Maryland, the District of Columbia and Virginia as the
Middle States, or sometimes as the Middle Atlantic States; North Carolina,
South Carolina, Georgia and Northern and Eastern Florida as the South
Atlantic States; Western Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and
Texas as the Gidf States. Sometimes the Gulf States, the South Atlantic,
Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky and Arkansas are grouped together as the
Soxdhem States. The Lower Lakes, when used, means Lakes Erie and
Ontario. The Upper Lakes are Lakes Superior, Huron and Michigan.
The North-ivest means the country lying between the Mississippi and Mis-
souri Rivers. The South-west means Texas, Indian Territory and New
Mexico. Pacific Coast or Pacific States includes California, Oregon and
Washington Territory. The Ohio Valley includes the belt of country
about two hundred miles broad extending from Pittsburg to Cairo. The
Mississippi Valley includes a belt of about the same width extending from
Vicksburg to Davenport. The extensions from Missouri to Ohio, etc.,
refer to areas reaching to and including the central portions of the States
named. Thus a report, 'Westerly winds extending from Iowa to Penn-
sylvania,' would convey that those winds would be felt in the interior of
those States as well as over the territory lying between them of the respec-
tive States. In the coasts, etc., is included the land between the coasts and
the parallel range of coast hills or mountains. In Texas, Louisiana and
Northern Florida a belt of land extending a hundred miles inward would
be included. Winds are said to blow from the north-east when they are
generally included in the quadrant from north to east, etc., and similarly
for other directions."
The issue of synopses and probabilities was commenced February 19,
1871, and has been made thrice daily since that date. The synopses con-
sist of a synoptic view of the meteoric condition of the United States, as
had from the data received at each regular report. The probabilities are
the deductions made by the office from the data in its possession at the
time of each report as to meteoric conditions probably to be for the eight
620 BUBLEY'S V SITED STATES
hours then li'M ensuing. Copies of these synopses and probabilities are
furnished at the moment of their issue to the different press associations of
1 1 1 • - United Stair-. During the firsl six mouths after the publication of
probabilities was commenced, daily experiments were made in the prepa-
ration of detailed Bynopses, upon which were indicated the times and places
at which signals of caution or of safety ought to be shown. The results
indicated that the oilier would be justified in displaying cautionary signals
at various ports on the Atlantic coast, the gulf coast and the northern
lakes. The display of cautionary signals was therefore ordered to be
made at the designated stations of the observer-sergeants on and after
Wednesday, October 23, 1871, whenever such display should, in view of
the meteoric information in possession of the central office, be deemed
necessary. Each signal must be ordered by telegraph from the chief sig-
nal office, and remains displayed until it is ordered down by the same
authority, unless telegraphic communication with the central office is in-
terrupted and continues so for some hours after the storm has passed, in
which case the signal is lowered when the danger is over. Observers are
required, however, to exercise extreme caution in this respect, in order not
to mistake the customary lull in the centre of a storm for an indication
that it has passed over, nor are they under any circumstances permitted to
hoist or display cautionary signals without orders from headquarters. The
signal of caution — a red flag with a black square in the centre by day and
a i-ed light by night — displayed on the office of the observer and at other
prominent places throughout any city, signifies — 1. That from the informa-
tion had at the central office in Washington, a probability of stormy or
dangerous weather has been deduced for the port or place at which the
cautionary signal is displayed, or in that vicinity. 2. That the danger ap-
pears to be so great as to demand precaution on the part of navigators
and others interested, such as an examination of vessels or other structures
likely to be endangered by a storm, the inspection of crews, rigging, etc.,
and general preparation for rough weather. 3. It calls for frequent exam-
ination of local barometers and other instruments, and the study of local
Bigns of the weather or clouds, etc. By this means those who are expert
may often he confirmed as to the need of the precaution to which the cau-
tionary Bignal calls attention, or may determine that the danger is over-
estimated or past. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1871, applications
were made by Boards of Trade of cities in the river valleys to have added
to the telegraphed and hull. 'lined reports of the Signal Service a tele-
graphed report of the rise or fall of the greater rivers. An examina-
tion of this Bubjecl showed that by the addition of two words per day to a
Bingle one of the cipher reports already had from the river stations the
requisite reports might he given, and that the expense of the necessary ap-
paratus would he trivial. It was therefore proposed to embody this infor-
CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 621
mation with the reports as having a direct connection with the meteoric
information which they already contained. No definite form of water-
gauge was adopted, as it is difficult to get one at a reasonable cost which
would be adapted to the essentially different circumstances under which it
must be used at the several river stations. The following simple form of
gauge is recommended for localities where it is difficult to get one of more
scientific construction, or to be used as a temporary substitute for the latter
in case of emergency: "Take a pine scantling 1} to 1J inches in thickness
and from 5 to 6 inches in breadth, the length varying with the depth of
water where it is to be used. Having planed the scantling smooth, give it
a heavy coat of white zinc paint, and after the paint is dry divide the scant-
ling into feet and tenths of feet with a rule and lead-pencil. With a small
brush paint the tenths of feet black, except the centre and initial ones,
which will be painted red and in heavier Hues than the intermediate ones.
Indicate each foot with its proper number in plain figures on the white
surface just above its mark. Having thus marked the staff up to a suffi-
cient height to ensure getting the maximum high water, select a pile or
other stationary object in some portion of the levee or wharf where the
staff will be secure from being damaged or defaced by coming into contact
with vessel^ and where it will not be left dry by the tide. Lower the staff
into the water, taking care to keep it in a vertical position until it touches
the bed of the river, and then secure it to the pile by spikes. It would be
well in selecting a place for fixing the staff to take the angle of a pier,
and having fastened a smooth piece of scantling about the size of the -staff
on the side of the pile secure the staff to this. When the gauge is in an
exposed place liable to be washed by the waves, advantage should be taken
of the first low water to secure it from being displaced by driving in addi-
tional spikes or by lashing it with strong cords to the pile. Care must be
taken in reading the staff when the water is rough to get the mean of the
rise and fall of the waves. It would be well after securing the staff to
determine some point of reference, so that in case it should be destroyed
another one could be put up at the same height. This may be done by
taking and marking any given point in the vicinity, a pile or a rock, at
any given height of the water. Thus by driving a spike or drilling a hole,
and recording the height of the water as read from the staff at the time,
you have a ' bench mark ' or point of reference by which to set up
another staff. It would be necessary in doing this to make a sketch of
the place, giving the location of the staff and of the point of reference,
noting the local names of the surrounding points, so that any other person
could find the place from the description." We have given so much space
for the transcription of these directions with the design of benefiting those
who wish to become amateur observers or to whom the measurement of '
the rise and fall of a stream may be a matter of curiosity or of interest.
022 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES
Befor* proceeding to further details with reference to the observations
taken, it would be well to state who the observers arc and what course of
preparation Is required for their very important duties. They are all ser-
ins of the United States army, cot taken at random, but selected with
great care; ami in order to secure tin- very best of material, arrangements
have been made whereby thost who wish to become observer-sergeants can
enlist with that design, with the certainty of promotion to the charge of a
station it' they pass the requisite examinations and give evidence of the
kdiness and ability. After an extended course of study and of
special training at Fort Whipple, Va., in which they become thoroughly con-
versant with Loomis' Treatise on Meteorology, Buchan's Handy Book, Pid-
dh.. Horn Bot ' . Espy's Philosophy <>/ Storms, Fitzroy's Weather Book,
Ley's Laws <>/ the Winds and kindred works, they must pass two examina-
tions, conducted by an army hoard consisting of leading officers, at tic cen-
tral oliiee. The first examination is only preliminary, and can he passed by
any one who is a good arithmetician, who is able to write good English, and
who is well acquainted with geography, especially with the geography of
the United States. Before passing the final examination the candidate, in
many cases, has served as an a>.-i.-tauton duty at a station, lie i.- required
when examined to work out a variety of practical problems in instrumental
meteorology, to display a full acquaintance with the instrument. - , and to
prove that he is thoroughly conversant with the laws of storms and the gen-
eral principle- of his science. The observers are also trained at Fort Whip-
ple iu all the duties and drills of the sigual corps of the army, so that in time
of war they will be ready for field duty. Full and minute directions are
given to observers who are sent to establish new Btations, and all stations
are liable to be inspected at any time by an officer from headquarter.-, who
examines all arrangements made, the shelter for the instruments, the office-
records of the observer,* etc., and ascertains as far as possible how the
observer-sergeant has conducted himself in the performance of his duties,
and in his official, and even his personal, intercourse with the public, it
being of great importance to the service that those who are in charge of
station- Bhould gain the respect and good-will of the communities in which
they are Located. If the conduct of the observer has uol been satisfactory,
he may he assigned to some less important station or reduced to the ranks,
or even discharged " lor the benefit of the mi vice," a- hi- case may require.
It i- not often, however, that such Btringenl measures are required. There
ifi an esprit <!e Corps among those who have been .-elected lor these honor-
able and important positions which had.- them by every means in their
p0W( i' to labor for the benefit of a service which has daily become better,
more efficient, more worthy ot being a pride and honor to our common
country and more deserving of consideration by foreign nations, as an evi-
dence of which we note with great pleasure that a "letter of distinction"
CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 623
was awarded to the Signal Service Bureau of the United States by the
geographical congress which was in session in Paris in August, 187").
Each station is, or ought to be, and eventually will be, supplied with the
following instruments: two standard barometers (Green's), two standard
thermometers (Green's), one standard hygrometer (Glaisher's model), one
maximum thermometer, one minimum thermometer, one anemometer
(Robinson's) for measuring the velocity of the wind, one anemoscope or
wind-vane to indicate the direction of the wind, one rain gauge. Seven
observations are taken daily, three for transmission by telegraph to the
central office and four others for transmission weekly by mail. The instru-
ments are read in the following order: 1. barometer, 2. thermometer, 3.
hygrometer, 4. anemometer, 5. anemoscope, 6. rain gauge. The readings
of the instruments are entered in a book in lead-pencil, and they indicate
the atmospheric pressure, the temperature, the relative humidity of the
atmosphere, the velocity and direction of the wind and the amount of
rainfall. The observer is also required to note the " state of the weather,"
whether cloudy, foggy or fair, etc., the amount, kind and direction of the
upper clouds and the amount and kind of the lower clouds. An admir-
ably constructed verbal cipher, one word of which frequently conveys
two separate pieces of information, permits great condensation in the tele-
graphic reports. Each regular report consists of ten words, arranged
when written off for transmission in two lines of five words each. In the
first line the first word gives the name of the station, the second the date
and .time of the report, the third the height of the mercury in the barom-
eter, the fourth the temperature, and the fifth the relative humidity. In
the second line the first word gives the state of the weather and the direc-
tion of the wind, the second the velocity of the wind, the third the amount,
kind and direction of the upper clouds (provided, of course, that they are
in sight; if they are hidden, this word is used), the fourth the amount and
kind of the lower clouds (no amount, of course, being given if the atmo-
sphere is hazy, foggy or smoky), the fifth the rainfall since last report.
The following is an example of a regular report :
Mount; Cake; Florida; Throng; Beast';
Caspian ; Relic ; Hidden ; Three ; Abase.
Translation : Mount (station), Mount Washington ; Cake (date and
time), 2d, morning report; Florida (barometer), 30.07; Throng (ther-
mometer), 19° ; Beast (humidity), .35 ; Caspian (state of the weather and
direction of wind), cloudy, north-west; Relic (velocity of wind), 47 miles;
Hidden (upper clouds), hidden; Three (lower clouds), foggy; Abase
(rainfall), .01. For a river report a sixth word is added to each line, the
last word in the first line being " River " if the rise or fall lias not ex-
ceeded eight feet, and the last word in the second line indicating the
change in the past twenty-four hours. If this change has exceeded eight
624 BUBLET'S VMTi:i) STATES
feet, a word indicating the number of feel takes the place of "River," and
the lower word gives the odd inches. Thus "River" ending the first line
and " Hang " ending the second indicate a rise of 9 inches. "Obey" end-
ing the first line and "Hamlet " ending the second indicate a rise of 10
feet and 7 inches. The amount of condensation secured by this system
can be judged by the fact that during the eleven months ending Septem-
ber 30, 1871, the number of words of weather reports received at Wash-
ington was 561,929, while during the year ending September 30, 187 b
with the bumber of .-tations sending telegraphic reports largely increased
and daily river reports added, the number of words of weather reports
had risen to only 941,860, this system of cipher words having been elab-
orated and introduced. The hours at which the reports are to be trans-
mitted are given to the observers in the local time of their respective
stations. They are required to be at the telegraph-office with the reports
carefully and plainly written out in duplicate ten minutes before the hours
named, in order that the operator may be notified in time to prepare for
their transmission, and must obtain the signature of the operator to both
copies of each report, with the exact time of receipt by him. Should the