presence of members of the court, the sovereign wearing the
20 'I'll B I'MTEl) STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.
robes of state. A minister resident is received in "private
audience," that is, by the sovereign alone, without attendance
and in ordinary costume. When a court is in mourning,
all ministers are received in " private audience."
The United States is one of the few nations that has no
"court dress." The ministers of other countries have a
distinctive regalia according to their rank, wear swords,
and sashes, and decorations, if they happen to have them,
at their presentation and on all occasions of ceremony ; but
the representatives of the United States appear in simple
evening dress (a swallow-tailed coat, a low-cut vest, and
a white tie), but those who have served in the army are
permitted to wear the uniform of their highest brevet rank.
Some ambitious diplomatists from this country have appeared
in militia uniforms, but this is simply tolerated, and is not
recognized by the regulations.
The ceremonies of presentation having been completed, the
minister, with his escort, makes a bow, and retires backward
to the center of the room, bows again and continues to retire
until the exit is reached, when he can turn and walk
naturally ; but it is very bad manners to turn one's back upon
the sovereign of a nation. This, however, does not conclude
the formalities. The new minister, within twenty-four hours
after his presentation, is expected to pay a visit of ceremony
to the minister of foreign affairs and other members of the
cabinet, at their residences, and to his colleagues of the
diplomatic corps. In these visits he is accompanied by the
introducer of ambassadors and the secretaries of the legation,
who present him.
The ceremony of presenting new ministers from foreign
countries to the United States is very different and is in
accordance with the " Jefferson ian simplicity" that is sup-
posed to characterize the acts of all the officials of this
DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OP THE UNITED STATES. 21
government. At the hour appointed the minister goes to the
Department of State, attended by his secretaries, and is es-
corted by the secretary of state to the "White House. Then he
is shown into the Red Room, and a messenger notifies the
President. The latter leaves his desk and comes down to
the Blue Room in his everyday garments. The new minister
reads his address ; the President reads his reply, the party
shake hands all around, spend a few moments in familiar con-
versation, and retire.
The foreign legations in Washington are very much larger
than those of the United States abroad, and the ministers and
secretaries of legation receive much higher salaries. The
British ambassador, for example, is provided with a residence
owned by his government, almost as spacious as the Executive
Mansion, and including the allowance for purposes of enter-
tainment receives a compensation nearly equal to that of
the President of the United States. Even his carriage and
horses are paid for by his government and the wages of
a certain number of servants, while the President of the
United States provides his own carriage and pays his own
servants with the exception of his steward, the gardeners, the
messengers, and the watchmen. The British ambassador has
five secretaries, a military attache, and a naval attache, be-
sides several clerks.
The Mexican ambassador at Washington has six secretaries,
while the United States minister at Mexico has one, and
the legations of other countries have a similar number of
assistants. It is a well-known fact that the diplomatic service
of the United States is smaller in numbers and receives less
compensation than that of any other of the great nations
of the world. The annual cost of the entire service is about
$400,000, while that of Great Britain is four times as much.
The duties of a minister are difficult to define, as they are so
22 THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.
general in their character and depend entirely upon circum-
stances and the relations that exist between his own govern-
ment and that to which he is accredited. He is expected
always to keep the Department of State informed as to politi-
cal events and public opinion, and their significance, especially
when they have a bearing upon affairs at home. From him
the secretary of state should learn, promptly, accurately, and
fully, all that it is necessary to know about the affairs, the
politics, and the policy of the nation to which he is sent,
and in former times, before the days of telegraphic cables
and newspapers, he was expected to send information con-
cerning events of general interest. The communications of
the ministers to England, France, and other countries seventy-
five years ago were a continuous narrative of the history
of the time.
These communications are called "dispatches," and all
official correspondence is numbered consecutively, as a matter
of convenience, so that in replying the secretary of state
begins, "Referring to your No. 117, I have to say, etc." The
letters from the secretary of state are known as " instructions."
Each minister begins a new series with No. 1 and continues
to the end of his term.
The secretary of state, when he desires to communicate with
a foreign government, can do so either through the minister of
the United States at the capital of that nation or through
its minister at Washington. He can say to the minister of
France at Washington, " I wish you would tell your govern-
ment so and so," or he can write the minister at Paris, "You
are instructed to inform the government of France that such
and such is the case." But the ordinary practice is to confer
with the minister of a foreign government concerning affairs
that exist here, and with the minister of the United States
concerning matters that are occurring near his post, on the
DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. 23
theory that a minister should be most familiar with events
that happen where he is located.
When a minister of the United States in a foreign country-
receives a message from the secretary of state he calls upon
the minister of foreign affairs to deliver it. If it is a matter of
importance, he prepares what is termed a "note," either
a letter drawn in formal style or a mere memorandum con-
taining a statement of facts, which he presents in person
and accompanies with such oral explanation as may be
necessary. To this " note " he expects to receive a prompt
reply and if he requires additional information he calls to
obtain it before communicating with his government. If it is
a matter of minor importance he simply confers with the
minister of foreign affairs in conversation and makes a memo-
randum of what has been said when he returns to his legation.
For the convenience of the diplomatic corps the minister
of foreign affairs usually has a day when those who have
business to transact with him can have an opportunity to
do so, and the diplomatists are received in the order of
their rank ; or if they be of the same rank the first who comes
has precedence ; but ministers can call at any time at the
Foreign Office, if their errand is urgent, or even at the resi-
dence of the minister of foreign affairs. At the Department
of State in Washington, Thursday is "diplomatic day," and
the secretary denies himself to ordinary visitors if any
member of the diplomatic corps desires to see him.
If the minister does not converse fluently in the language of
the country to which he is accredited or if the minister of
foreign affairs does not understand his, he is at liberty to bring
his own interpreter. There are official interpreters in the
foreign departments of governments who may be called in on
these occasions, but where the topic is of grave importance
each has his own interpreter. When the minister of foreign
24 THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.
afi&irs speaks, his interpreter makes the translation, and
vice versa, and if any mistakes are made one has the right
to correct the other.
Taking the affair of the riot in New Orleans in 1891 as
an example of diplomatic controversy, Mr. Blaine conducted
the correspondence with Baron Fava, the Italian minister
at Washington, who received his instructions by cable from
Rome. But Mr. Porter, our minister at Rome, was called
upon by Mr. Blaine to make known to the government of
Italy the provisions of the Constitution of the United States,
the relations between the general government and the states,
and the methods of criminal procedure that prevail in
this country. He was instructed to explain to the Marquis
Rudini that it was impossible for the federal authority to
punish crimes committed in violation of the laws of the
State of Louisiana, and to assure him, as Mr. Blaine had
already assured Baron Fava, (hat the President would use
all his influence to bring to justice those who had been guilty
of the outrage.
When a treaty is to be negotiated, the first step usually
taken by the minister is to call upon the minister of foreign
affairs and discuss the subject in its several aspects in order
that a general understanding may be reached. Then the
representative of the government who proposes the treaty pre-
pares a "note" or memorandum embodying the provisions
he desires to have adopted. This he submits with whatever
explanation or argument is necessary. Then the representa-
tive of the other power, having given the subject sufficient
investigation and reflection, prepares a reply, which he
forwards to the other, and the correspondence is continued,
witli frequent interviews, until an agreement in general terms
is reached. Both prepare memoranda setting forth their
understanding of the agreement. These are called protocols,
DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. 25
and are usually submitted by the diplomatist to his home
government for its approval. Then by further correspond-
ence the details are agreed upon, two exact copies of the
treaty are prepared and signed, for the ratification of the
governments interested. "When this ratification is completed,
proclamation of the fact and the publication of the text of
the treaty are made simultaneously at the capitals of both
nations, usually at noon on a day agreed upon.
One of the gravest duties of a minister is the protection
of the rights of his fellow-citizens, which are generally
established by treaties. This is especially true of ministers
of the United States in countries that have furnished a share
of the immigrants that make up so large a proportion of
our population. These immigrants often return to their
former homes and get into trouble when they call upon the
United States legation for protection. It is an unfortunate
fact, too, that many of the "American colonies," as citizens of
this country living in foreign lands are called, have representa-
tives of the criminal class among their number, who are
fugitives from justice and commit offenses against the laws
of the nations in which they reside. They also appeal to
the minister when they are charged with crime, and he is
required to see that justice is done them. In each legation
a register is kept, in which citizens of the United States
can and should inscribe their names, professions, residences,
etc., and at the same time have the minister indorse, or
vis6, their passports or naturalization papers, because the
first thing required of people who are in trouble is to establish
their citizenship. This can be done much more easily before
than after they get into trouble, and the records of a legation
are accepted as prima facie evidence of the fact.
Foreign ministers are also called upon frequently to perform
the ceremony of marriage, to draw wills and administer
26 THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.
estates, :uul to take charge of the property of citizens of
the United States who die within their jurisdiction.
Social duties and pleasures also take up a large share of their
time, and it is not only important that they should mingle
freely in the society of the courts to which they are attached,
but it is even more so that they should return the hospi-
tality they enjoy, and entertain largely. The most successful
diplomacy begins at the dinner table, and the social acquaint-
ance and standing of a minister give him an influence that he
could not otherwise obtain. For this reason the fact that
a candidate for a diplomatic appointment is wealthy and
can afford to spend money in entertaining is a powerful argu-
ment in his favor.
A minister who lives in an economical manner that would
command respect at home, has little social standing or in-
fluence abroad, for he is recognized as the representative of a
powerful and wealthy nation and is expected to maintain a
corresponding style of living.
In the absence of great questions there is a multitude of
routine duties to keep a minister busy, and he is expected
to show some attention to his fellow-citizens who visit the
country in which he is residing. They want to be presented
at court or obtain admission to public and private places
of interest, and they even ask him to recommend tailors
for themselves and dressmakers for their wives. The legations
have regular office hours, and their business is transacted with
a great deal of formality. Their dispatches must be prepared
according to a certain form ; and copies made in a book kept
for that purpose. All letters they receive must be preserved,
registered, indexed, and filed, and a daily journal kept of
the transactions of the legation.
CHAPTER II.
THE CONSULAR SERVICE.
The consular service is entirety different and distinct
from the diplomatic service. The envoy extraordinary and
minister plenipotentiary is an agent of the government to
conduct its business with another government. A consul
is the representative of the people to look after the commercial
interests of his country, and their business is with local
officials, and exporters and importers. They have no diplo-
matic powers or privileges, and are stationed at commercial
centers for the purpose of facilitating trade and preventing
fraud upon the revenues of their country.
The consular service is the direct and necessary result of
commerce, and in early times consuls were selected by mer-
cantile associations and not by governments. They were
formerly judges or arbitrators in the settlement of differences
between merchants, and were known as judge-consuls, or
consul-judges, taking their title from that of the municipal
magistrates of the Roman Empire. This practice was con-
tinued for centuries. It is said that the first appointment of a
consul by the government of England was at the request of
a British commercial organization in an Italian city which
could not agree in the selection of one of their own number,
and the experiment was so successful that the government
assumed the responsibility in other cases, and the practice
became general among all governments. By the natural
27
28 THE IMTKIi STATICS AM) FOREIGN POWERS.
evolution of affairs the powers and duties of consuls became
changed and enlarged, and the organizations of courts, and
the adoption of codes of international law deprived them of
their judicial duties.
The consular service of the United States was established by
law in 1792, but before that date "Washington had appointed
seventeen consuls and five vice consuls. Under this law
the secretary of state had the right of appointment, and
no salaries were paid. The consuls got their compensation in
the form of fees received for the services they performed, and
were usually merchants or shipping agents at foreign ports.
In 1816 an attempt was made to reorganize the system and
establish a salaried corps, and it was repeated at subsequent
sessions of Congress, but the present service was not estab-
lished until 1856, when the President was empowered to make
the appointments, subject to the approval of the Senate,
and the consulates were graded according to their importance.
The present establishment is awkward, and in many respects
defective, and it is universally agreed by all who are familiar
with the subject that its efficiency could be vastly increased by
reorganization. At every session of Congress bills are reported
for this purpose, but political influences and differences of
opinion as to the best methods to be adopted have prevented
the passage of a new law.
Under the laws of the United States no especial training
or qualifications are required for the consular service, and
appointments are made by the President for political and per-
sonal as well as for commercial reasons. Nor is there any
specific term of office, the commission being revoked at the
will of the President. But consuls are not expected to tender
their resignations with a change of administration as diplo-
matic officers do. They continue to perform their duties until
their resignations are tendered voluntarily or at the request
THE CONSULAR SERVICE. 29
of the Department of State. There have been several attempts
in Congress to make the corps permanent and provide for
appointments and promotions on the basis of special qualifi-
cations and efficiency, but political considerations have pre-
vented, and the offices are still deemed proper rewards for
political services. That the usefulness of the service is im-
paired by frequent changes and the appointment of inefficient
and inexperienced men, there is no doubt ; because it requires
from six months to a year for a consul to become familiar with
his duties, and his ignorance of the language of the country
in which he is stationed detracts greatly from his efficiency.
To secure an appointment in the British consular corps a
person must undertake a course of study and then submit
to an examination. He must be able to read and write and
speak fluently the language of the country to which he is
sent ; he must be familiar with commercial usages, have a
thorough knowledge of commercial law, and be versed in sta-
tistics. Before he starts for his post he must serve at least
three months in the consular bureau of the Foreign Office, and
is usually required to serve as vice consul for a year or more
before he is given a permanent place. In fact the greater
portion of the British corps have commenced their career as
consular clerks.
The French system is even more severe in its requirements.
In France young men are educated especially for the consular
service and must obtain a diploma from the national schools.
The first appointment is made to the lowest grade, after an
examination in international and commercial law, political
economy, geography, statistics, tariff regulations, and the
modern languages. Three years' experience in one grade
is required before a consul can be promoted to the next, and a
new examination is necessary each time.
Similar requirements govern appointments and promotions
30 TIIK DNITED STATES AND FOREIGN TOWERS.
in the German, Belgian, Austrian, Italian, and other Euro-
pean consular corps.
There are, however, a number of consuls in the service of
the United States who have been retained for years, and pro-
moted from time to time, because of their especial fitness
and efficiency. The oldest officer holds a commission dated In
1848, and there are several who have served continuously for
sixteen, eighteen, and twenty years.
Under the present law the service is classified into several
grades : (1) consuls general ; (2) consuls ; (3) vice consuls ;
(4) deputy consuls ; (5) commercial agents ; (6) consular clerks.
These are subdivided into three classes : (a) consuls who
receive fixed salaries, are required to give their entire time
to their duties, and are not permitted to engage in private
business ; (6) those who receive fixed salaries, but are allowed
to engage in private business ; (e) those who receive com-
pensation from fees collected for official services performed and
are allowed to engage in private business. All those included
in classes a and b must be confirmed by the Senate.
A consul general is usually stationed at the chief commercial
city of the country in which he resides, and has supervision
over all the consuls in that country, but there may be two or
more consuls general in the same country, each with his own
district and jurisdiction. He may appoint his own vice consul
and deputy consul and the consular agents in his district, sub-
ject to the approval of the secretary of state. The vice consul
receives no salary and is not required to perform any duties
except in the absence of his chief, but is generally a clerk
in the office of the consul, and takes his place and receives
his compensation during his absence. A deputy consul is
a permanent official who receives a fixed compensation from
the fees collected in the office, and assists the consul in the
performance of his duties.
THE CONSULAR SERVICE. 31
A commercial agent differs from a consul only in rank and
grade, and is entitled to the same rights and privileges ; he is
appointed by the President without submitting the nomi-
nation to the Senate.
Consular agents, however, are only the representatives of
the consul of the district in which they serve, and derive
their powers from him and not directly from the government,
although their duties are the same. They are not authorized
to correspond with the Department of State, but make their
reports to and receive their instructions from the consul.
There are two classes of consular clerks. There are thirteen
clerks in the service who are appointed by the secretary
of state, and hold commissions from him during good be-
havior, with salaries of $1,000 and $1,200 a year. It was
designed by Congress when the law authorizing their appoint-
ment was passed, to make the corps of consular clerks a
training school for the education of consuls, but the intention
has not been carried out. The other class are temporary clerks,
appointed by the consuls, with the approval of the secretary
of state, and paid from the fees collected in the office.
The consuls of the United States may be described as trade
sentinels stationed at the chief cities of the world, to keep their
commander, the secretary of state, promptly and fully in-
formed of all matters and events of commercial interest, to
prevent frauds upon the revenues by certifying to the correct-
ness of the invoices of goods exported to this country, and
to notify the government at Washington of any attempt at
smuggling which they may suspect or detect. They are charged
in a general way to protect the interests of their fellow-citi-
zens who may be residing in the district over which they have
jurisdiction ; to inform the government of the violation of
treaties ; to give advice and assistance to merchants and ship-
masters that may visit their ports ; to prevent the emigration
32 THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.
of paupers and criminals to the United States; to look after
sick and indigent citizens of their own country; and to take
charge of the property of those who die. They are given
police jurisdiction over the merchant marine of the United
States, and have power to decide disputes between shipmasters
and members of their crews, to arrest deserters from ships,
to investigate shipwrecks, and send home discharged, disabled,
or shipwrecked seamen. They are also required to investigate
and report upon all arrests of American citizens charged with
crime ; to see that their interests are properly protected in the
courts, and that the stipulations of treaties covering such
cases are complied with.
A consul is also required to certify in triplicate to the accu-
racy of the invoices of all goods shipped to the United States.
He not only takes the oath of the merchant or manufacturer
who ships them, but must have an accurate knowledge of
the value of the goods in order to prevent perjury and fraud
in undervaluations. Of these triplicate invoices, one is filed
in the consulate ; one is forwarded to the collector of the port
to which the goods are sent, and the third is given to the
shipper, who sends it to the person for whom they are in-
tended, for use in securing their admission through the
custom house and in paying the duties assessed upon them.
For this service he charges certain fees which are fixed by
law. He must keep an accurate record of all invoices also,
with the fees collected, and at the end of each quarter forward
a copy to the secretary of the treasury at Washington.
He must register and report the arrival and departure of