share of the Simoneseki indemnity fund of $3,000,000, at least
two thirds of which has been popularly regarded as shameless
extortion. Another proof of friendship and fairness was indi-
cated in the apology of this government for the action of Com-
mander Selfridge, who violated the sovereignty of Japan by
firing at a target on her shores ; and an additional act of jus-
tice was done in voting a satisfactory indemnity for the kill-
ing and wounding of several of her citizens, who, unac-



280 TIIK UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN TOWERS.

quainted with the character of the unexploded shells fired by
the commander, Buffered death <>r injury while trying to strip
the copper from one of these missiles. Again, in the postal
convention of 1873, the United States manifested anew the re-
spect and confidence due to the Japanese by surrendering to
their government the control of her own postal affairs. This
sensible and proper recognition of the right and ability of
Japan to manage her own mail system was fiercely assailed by
European governments, but the wisdom of the step was fully
justified by similar favorable action on the part of those gov-
ernments. Indeed, the kind and liberal spirit that the United
States have invariably manifested toward the Japanese has won
their confidence and friendship to a degree not enjoyed by any
other nation or people.

The brilliant reception extended by the government and
people of Japan to General Grant during his visit there
excited, in America, general admiration and grateful apprecia-
tion. The occasion afforded to the Japanese a favorable
opportunity to demonstrate their high regard for America
and Americans, and it was improved by them to the fullest
extent. General Grant was received with royal honors and
every day of his sojourn was distinguished by fresh mani-
festations of the high respect and gracious hospitality of
the entire nation. His journeys through the country assumed
the semblance of triumphal processions, his sojourns in the
cities were characterized by splendid banquets and brilliant
fGtes, and his voyages, as he sailed along the shores, were
replete with spontaneous and splendid welcomes amid the
roar of cannon, the blaze of fireworks, the waving of banners,
and the deafening plaudits of a rejoicing people. Upon his
arrival at Tokio, the capital of Japan, where the most elabo-
rate preparations had been made for his reception, he was
escorl d in rega 1 state to Euriokwan, one of the private palaces



RELATIONS WITH JAPAN. 281

of the emperor, which had been, designated as his quarters
during his stay in the capital. There, attended by a numer-
ous retinue of the royal officials and servants and surrounded
by all the refinements of Japanese art and luxury, be was
entertained with such a rare and splendid Oriental hospitality
as has never been extended to royalty. There he was visited
by the emperor himself, who, in a private interview, discussed
with him the policies of state and asked his friendly counsel
in the various matters relating to the welfare of his subjects
and to the prosperity and progress of his country.

The question that for years has overshadowed all others in
the empire of Japan is the revision and reformation of her
treaties with foreign powers. If, upon the opening of the
country to foreigners, the government had carefully pursued
the prudent policy counseled by the American representative,
it would have been spared many of the evils that now afflict
the nation ; but, in view of the threatening attitude of
European diplomatists and the misfortunes that had over-
whelmed China, it sought to temporize in the face of appre-
hended dangers and yielded step by step to the insidious
demands that were preferred by England, Germany, and Hol-
land. Thus it granted the right of extraterritoriality, under
which foreigners were not amenable to Japanese law and by
virtue of which the consular officers of various nations, notori-
ously uninstructed in legal matters and, in many cases, other-
wise unfitted for the administration of justice, have set up
miniature courts upon the soil of Japan to shield their subjects
from merited punishment, to involve the natives in technical
violations of their edicts and afterwards to speculate upon
their misfortunes and trade upon their fears. They have
resisted the payment of land taxes, of tonnage and lighthouse
dues, and tolls upon bridges ; they have quite monopolized the
coastwise trade to the exclusion of Japanese vessels, and, in a



282 THE I Mlil> MATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.

notable instance, when the government had discovered smug-
gling and was adopting proper means to prevent it, the minis-
ter of Great Britain threatened to land troops to assist his
countrymen in violation of Japanese regulations.

On tlit- other hand, European nations have contended that
the laws of Japan were antiquated and insufficient, and that
the courts were incompetent and corrupt. The rapid progress
of Japan in commercial and intellectual development no
longer permits that pretext to be advanced. The statutes, par-
ticularly those relating to civil and commercial affairs, have
been revised and codified by a competent commission, the
French rules of practice in judicial procedure have been
adopted, and the native judiciary is now composed of men
who are eminent for learning and integrity. Having no
longer an excuse for treating Japan as a semi-barbarous nation,
the United States and the European powers have entered into
uniform treaties, under which, after the first of July, 1899,
foreign residents in Japan will be amenable to the local laws
and courts as in any <>t her civilized country. Hitherto they have
not been allowed to engage in business, hold property, or re-
side in any but certain designated cities, and only in certain
portions of those cities, called "foreign reservations." Here-
after a foreigner may come and go, and enjoy all the rights,
privileges, and immunities that are allowed native subjects of
the Mikado.

The foreign residents approach this radical change in their
conditions with serious apprehension. Many of them have
taken advantage of the protection of their consuls to engage
in transactions and evade obligations that were not entirely
creditable ; and they fear retaliation. There is likely to be
more or less friction between the foreign and native popula-
tion, but it can be safely assumed that the authorities of Japan
are just, and that its courts are honest and intelligent.



CHAPTER XXI.

RELATIONS WITH KOREA, SAMOA, AND SIAM.

The Kingdom of Korea.

The kingdom of Korea is situated in the northwestern part
of Asia on the Pacific Ocean. It has an area of 82,000 square
miles (about that of the state of Kansas), and is a peninsula
like Florida, with a population variously estimated at from
eight to sixteen millions. The religion of the country is
Buddhist and the Chinese language is spoken. Until within
recent years, Korea has been closed to the world. The policy
of the government, like that long practiced by China and
Japan, was to exclude all foreigners from the country and
to prevent its citizens from going abroad ; hence it has re-
mained for ages in a state of seclusion and until lately very
little was known of it by the people of the West.

The United States was the first nation to attempt relations
with Korea, and this was due to a curious series of circum-
stances. An American citizen named Frederick Jenkins, who
had for some time served as interpreter at the United States
consulate general at Shanghai, formed a small band of con-
spirators of various nationalities in China, chartered an
American schooner, the General Sherman, and sailed for Korea
early in 1868 for the purpose of robbing the tombs of the
deceased sovereigns of that country and holding their remains
for ransom. Having sailed up a river some distance into
the interior, the party cast anchor and several of the crew

283



084



THE UNITED ST A TES AND FOREIGX POWERS.






went ashore, when, after offering some indignities to the
people, they were arrested. Afterwards reinforcements from
the Sherman came to tin sir assistance, rescued them, and took
them on board. This conduct, however, inflamed the people
to such a degree that they attacked the party, killed eight of
them, carried the others ashore, and destroyed the vessel.
The leader, Jenkins, escaped and returned to China.
In March, 1868, shortly after this event, the United States

ship Shenandoah,
then in Chinese
waters, visited Ko-
rea. Upon her re-
turn, in May, 1868,
the commander re-
port e d that al-
though he had
slight intercourse



with some of the na-
tives on the coast,
he had failed to
learn anything in
reference to the de-
struction of the
Sherman and the
fate of the persons
captured on board
that vessel.
In April follow-
ing, commissioners from Korea were sent to Shanghai with
the object of learning the state of feeling with reference
to the destruction of the Sherman and the killing of the
persons on board that vessel, and to consult with the United
States consul general as to the propriety of sending an em-




RELATIONS WITH KOREA, SAMOA, AND SIAM. 285

bassy to Washington to explain the circumstances connected
with the affair. They also represented that their govern-
ment was considering the question of proposing the adoption
of a treaty of friendship and commerce between the two
nations. Mr. Seward, becoming interested in the subject,
communicated some suggestions to the Department of State in
reference to the propriety of making such a treaty and the
correspondence was continued for some time. Meanwhile
Admiral Rogers of the United States Navy, then in Chinese
waters, also addressed our government upon the same subject
and urged the negotiation of a treaty for the protection of
shipwrecked seamen.

After prolonged consideration the secretary of state in-
structed Mr. Frederick F. Low, our minister to China, to
confer with the Chinese government in reference to the
conclusion of a treaty with Korea. This course was adopted
for the reason that Korea was, in some respects, tributary
to China and it was therefore deemed proper and advisable
to secure first the good will and, if practicable, the good offices
of that government. The Chinese minister of foreign rela-
tions, with characteristic eastern diplomacy, had little to
say upon the subject that might involve him in any re-
sponsibility, but took occasion to inform Mr. Low that
their relations with Korea were not such as to prevent the
latter country from making such a treaty.

The preliminaries having been as far as possible arranged,
the American commissioners, Mr. Low, Admiral Rogers, and
Mr. Seward, with a squadron consisting of the United
States vessels Colorado, Alaska, Benicia, Monocacy, and
Palos, sailed from China, and arrived, May 30, 1871, off the
coast of Korea at the mouth of the Salee River, fifty miles
from Seoul, the capital of the country. Some of the natives,
after the display of their customary caution and reserve, were



-Si; in i. UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.

induced, by the friendly demonstrations of the Americans, to
come on board, where they wire entertained with kindness
and attention and informed of the object of the visit. They
were also advised that it was the intention of the admiral
to send a surveying party up the river on the following day for
the purpose of marking out the channel, to which he hoped no
objections would be made ; and he requested that the na-
tives might be informed of their object and that, as their
mission was peaceful, no hostile demonstrations might be
made toward them. The natives replied that there would
be no trouble about the survey but that, in the matter of a
treaty, the people and the king were averse to contracting
relations with foreign powers.

The surveying party, in the Palos, Monocacy, and some
steam launches, started on June 1, 1871, making soundings
and scientific observations, but, upon arriving at a sharp angle
some distance up the river, batteries on either side of the
stream were unmasked and fire opened upon the Americans.
The vessels however soon, silenced the batteries and drove
the natives from their forts, after which they returned to
the squadron. Some days were spent, after this occurrence, in
a correspondence with the local officials with a view to a
peaceful adjustment of affairs, but their stubborn reticence
rendered every effort futile. Although informed that an
apology for the attack upon the surveying party was expected
from them, they studiously ignored the subject in their replies
to the commissioners. Another expedition was therefore
arranged and sailed up the river on June 10, 1871, returning
two days later, after having captured five forts, which,
with the munitions of war found in them, were destroyed.

Our minister, Mr. Low, now made another effort to open
negotiations with the government by sending ashore a letter
directed to the king, which was promptly returned unopened.



RELATIONS WITH KOREA, SAMOA, AND SIAM. 287

He again addressed a communication to the king and sent
ashore an interpreter to deliver it and to explain to the people
the necessity for its transmission to their sovereign ; but this
also was returned with a message that no one could be found
who would dare convey it to the capital. Mr. Low finally
concluded, in view of the circumstances, that any further
efforts would be useless, so he returned shortly afterwards to
his post. Admiral Rogers lingered for some time in the
vicinity, but he too became convinced that no practical results
could be accomplished and sailed with his squadron for China
and Japan. Our government was duly advised of the failure
of the expedition and, seeing no hope of accomplishing
anything further without a display of force in Korean waters,
all plans for opening negotiations with the Korean govern-
ment were indefinitely postponed.

In 1874 there was a bloodless revolution in Korea, in con-
sequence of which the ruler, who was a usurper, was deposed
and the lawful successor to the crown was placed on the
throne. The tyrannies previously suffered by the people were
mitigated and, although the policy of nonintercourse with
other nations was still adhered to, yet public interest was
excited upon the subject. The embassies annually sent to
China had become acquainted with the purpose of the attempt
by the Americans to establish amicable relations with the
people of Korea ; and the natives who visited China took with
them on their return books and papers relating to foreign
countries, from which was derived general knowledge of
the policies that governed these nations.

In the meantime, Japan became involved in a war with
Korea, and, having prosecuted the conflict to a successful con-
clusion, a treaty of peace was signed, by the terms of which
various ports of Korea were opened to the commerce of Japan.
This event marked the epoch of the opening of Korea to



288 THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.

the outside world, since we find that the people were after-
wards permitted to leave and return to their country, and
were even allowed to carry their produce to foreign markets,
and to take home with them the products of other countries.

The conditions for negotiations with the government having
now assumed a more favorable character, the United States
again made an effort in that direction. Admiral Shufeldt of
the American navy was intrusted with the delicate mission,
which was discharged with such success that, on May 22, 1882,
he concluded a treaty of peace, amity, and commerce with
Korea, the ratifications of which were exchanged at the capital
on May 19, 1883. This was the first treaty made with any
power except Japan. By its terms ample aid and protection is
to be extended to our vessels and seamen as well as to our citi-
zens who may travel through or reside in the country ; and
certain ports were declared open to the commerce of the
United States. This treaty was proclaimed on June 4, 1883.

Mr. Lucius H. Foote, the first minister of the United States
to Korea, arrived there and assumed the functions of his office
in May, 1883. He made a favorable impression upon the
government and so fully convinced the king of the friendly
interest and peaceable intentions of the United States that, on
July 6, 1883, it was determined, in state council, to send two
plenipotentiaries on a special mission to our country. They
were accordingly dispatched with credentials to our govern-
ment and duly arrived at Washington, where they were
received by President Arthur with cordial demonstrations of
friendship and treated with the attentions pertaining to their
distinguished character. Our government has been fortunate
in the selection of our diplomatic representatives to Korea, all
of whom have cultivated friendly relations with that people
and have acquainted them with the character, resources, and
policies of our government. It is doubtless due to this fact



RELATIONS WITH KOREA, SAMOA, AND SIAM. 289

that Americans are highly esteemed there and the relations
between the two governments are in perfect harmony.
The Kingdom of Samoa.

The kingdom of Samoa, popularly known as Navigator's
Islands, was discovered in 1772 by a Dutchman named Rozen-
wein, and is composed of a group of nine islands lying in the
Pacific Ocean five thousand miles southwest of San Francisco,
with an area of seventeen hundred square miles, hardly as
large as the state of Delaware. The population is estimated
at thirty-five thousand souls.

The products of the islands are varied and abundant. The
chief article of export is " copra," the dried meat of the cocoa-
nut ; cotton, coffee, indigo, corn, potatoes, arrowroot, nutmegs,
mace, breadfruit, oranges, bananas, and lemons are success-
fully grown, but the people are too indolent to devote them-
selves to agriculture. The spontaneous fruits of the soil are
abundant and unfailing, so that little or no effort is required
to provide the necessities of life.

Relations between the United States and Samoa were first
opened by Commander Richard W. Meade of the American
navy, who visited the islands in the man-of-war Narragan-
sett in 1872. He entered the Pango-Pango harbor and was
kindly received by the natives, to whom he extended proper
civilities and assurances of the friendship of the United States
government. During his stay he so impressed them with the
prospective advantages to be gained by the cultivation of in-
timate relations with our country that they readily consented
to cede to the United States the harbor of Pango-Pango as
port of refuge and coaling station, and a treaty to that effect
was granted him. This officer also induced the chiefs of the
island to form a confederation for their mutual aid and protec-
tion.

From this date the attention of our government was di-



li:.i) THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.

rected toward the affairs of Samoa, and President Grant, in
sponse to a petition from the native chiefs, sent a special
commissioner there in 1873 to collect information concerning
the country and the people. This commissioner, Mr. Stein-
berger, Bailed from San Francisco and arrived at the harbor of
Pango-Pango, August, 1S74, where he entered upon friendly re-
lations with the natives and visited and inspected the various
islands of the group. He prepared and transmitted to the
President a voluminous and interesting report upon the topog-
raphy and resources of the islands and the customs and char-
acter of the natives.

The people had been, for several years, engaged in petty
warfare among themselves with the natural result that indus-
try had been abandoned and all development suspended.
They were now, however, quite wearied of strife and, to put
an end to their troubles, were anxious to place themselves
under the protection and authority of the United States. A
petition to that effect had been signed by the chiefs of the
various islands, as well as by a number of foreign residents
there, including missionaries and other influential persons,
and sent to the President. Under the advice and direction of
Mr. Steinberger, the various chiefs assembled in council and
framed a constitution and laws for their united government ;
and, as soon as this new government was organized, the rulers
and chiefs, in response to the popular desire, again addressed
the President of the United States, praying that our govern-
ment might take the country under its protection. Mr. Stein-
berger shortly afterwards sailed for the United States and sub-
mitted to President Grant his report, together with the peti-
tion .

After the lapse of two years, during which time our govern-
ment took no action whatever in reference to the subject, Mr.
Steinberger lieeame impatient and resolved to return to Samoa,



RELATIONS WITH KOREA, SAMOA, AND SIAM. 291

with the purpose, as it appears, of taking part in the govern-
ment of the island. He arrived there in 1S75 and soon after,
under his counsel and supervision, the government was reor-
ganized, the chief Malietoa was chosen king, and Mr. Stein-
berger was appointed his prime minister. The turbulent
spirit soon broke out afresh, however, among the jealous
chiefs, and this government fell to pieces in the following
year, Chief Malietoa having been dethroned and Mr. Stein-
berger banished from the country.

The new government, under the direction of a council
of chiefs, started out very well and maintained peace for a
considerable time. During its administration the United
States negotiated a treaty by the terms of which the port of
Pango-Pango was definitely secured and free commerce was
granted to us. Soon after this event the affairs of state again
began to assume a portentous aspect and the country reached
the verge of a fresh revolution. The consular and naval au-
thorities of the United States, England, and Germany, then
in Samoa, having been appealed to, it w r as decided that Malie-
toa was entitled to be recognized as king, and he was accord-
ingly anointed and proclaimed in May, 1879.

The history of this government for a series of years is a
tale of strife and jealousies, the opposition to the king being
fostered and encouraged by the German residents, who had,
in many cases, acquired lands by questionable means and
quite monopolized the trade of the islands. At last a crisis
was precipitated in 1884, when the German consul concluded
an agreement with the Samoan council providing for the cre-
ation of a German-Samoan council of government. The king
refused to execute the terms of this agreement, which so ex-
asperated the German consul that he raised his flag over Apia
and took possession of the municipality in the name of his
government. The rebellion of Tamasese, an aspirant to the



292 THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS.

throne, now assumed formidable proportions, and, with the
aid and encouragement of the Germans, he was soon declared
king. Malietoa was overthrown and carried away from the
islands in a German man-of-war.

This action on the part of the German authorities justly
aroused intense excitement in the United States. It was re-
garded by our people as an attempt to establish a protectorate
over Samoa that would result in the ruin of our interests and,
ultimately, in annexation to the German Empire. Decisive
measures were promptly adopted by the United States chal-
lenging the conduct of Germany, the result of which was that
the commissioners, appointed by the United States, England,
and Germany, for the amicable adjustment of the difficulty,
declared that the pretensions of Tamasese were to be discoun-
tenanced and Malietoa replaced upon the throne. The neu-
trality of Samoa was guaranteed, its independence was recog-
nized, the right of the natives to choose their own ruler was
established, and the citizens of the three powers were declared
to have equal rights in the islands. A supreme court was
created, consisting of one judge appointed by the king of
Sweden and Norway, to whom are referred all suits respecting
real property, all causes between natives and foreigners, and
all crimes committed by the natives against foreigners. All
future alienation of lands, except with certain specified excep-
tions, is also prohibited.

This policy, ratified by the three powers, has been promptly
executed, and the government of Malietoa, thus supported,
gave peace to the country as long as he lived ; but after his
death, in the spring of 1899, the followers of Mataafa, with the