Class book of botany. Being outlines of the structure, physiology and classification of plants. With a flora of all parts of the United States and Canada online

CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY:



BEING OUTLINES OF THE



STRUCTURE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND CLASSIFICATION



OP



PLANT S;



WITH



Jflora of % ftnittb State anb Canaba.



BY



ALPHONSO iWOOD, A.M.

PRINCIPAL OF FEMALK ACADEMY, BROOKLYN.



" HE SPAKE OF TREES, FROM THE CEDAR OF LEBANOK EVEN tTNTO THE HYSSOP THAT
RPKIMGETH OCT OF THE WALL."! Kings, lv. 33,

" CONSIDER THE LILIES OF THE FIELD EVES SOLOMON, IN ALL HIS GLORY, WAS SOT

ARRAYED LIKE OXE OF THESE." Matthew, Yl*. 28, 29.



NEW YOKK:
PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & BURR,

TROY: MOORE & NIMS.

CINCINNATI: RICKEY, MALLORY & co.

NEW ORLEANS: H. n. JTGINXIS. MOBILE : RANDALL & WILLIAMS.

1861.



Entered, accordiag to Act of Congress, in the year I860, by

A. 8. BAENES & BUEE.
la the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York.



: 'i'U.



Add'l



GIFT



ILECTEOTTPID BT PEI-ilED BT



SMITH & McDOUOAL, QEORQEW won

, N. Y. , E ^ La S H.



tfiULOGT
LIBRARY



PREFACE.



THE Class-Book of Botany was first offered to the student in 1845.
It was originally prepared with immediate reference to the wants of
the author's own pupils, with scarcely a hope of approval from the
community beyond. The event, however, proved that the wants of his
own pupils were precisely the same as those of myriads of others ; and
the use of the book, notwithstanding its numerous imperfections, soon
became general.

The lapse of fifteen years has done much to develop not only the
knowledge of our native Flora, but of the science of Botany in general ;
and materials for the revision of our whole work have indefinitely
accumulated. In this revision, which seems to be demanded not less
by the growing appreciation of scientific studies as a means of intel-
lectual and moral discipline, than by the progress of the science itself,
we have still confined ourselves to the limits of a single volume, and
sternly resolved against any essential enlargement, except such as the
increased territory of our Flora requires. This we have done with
direct reference to the convenience and the means of the thousands of
youths who will still enter upon this delightful pursuit, and make their
text-book their vade-mecum. The labor expended in this condensation
will be appreciated by few, and those few, while they justify the mo-
tives, will regret the necessity.

The limit of our Flora in this new series has been much extended.
It now embraces the territory lying East of the Mississippi River with
the exception of the Southern Peninsula of Florida, and South of the
Great Lakes^and the River St. Lawrence. The States bordering upon
the western shores of the Mississippi, although not strictly included,
are essentially so, as well as those provinces of Canada upon the north-
ern shore of the St. Lawrence. This Class-Book is, therefore, now
professedly adapted to the student's use from Quebec to New Orleans
arid from St. Pauls to St. Augustine.

The southern peninsula of Florida is neglected in consequence of
the author's inability to visit that region hitherto. During his extended
tour southward in 1857, the Seminole war rendered tho route to the

M869468



IV PREFACE.

Everglades unsafe, or at least undesirable. The species omitted are
generally unknown northward of Key West. Students at Mecanopy,
Ocala, to St. Augustine, will scarcely miss them ; but should they do
so, they will confer a grateful favor by contributing specimens of such
to the author.

That every species of native plant in this extensive region is accu-
rately defined, or even noticed, we cannot presume ; yet this has been
our aim ; and as in the former series, so here, we have distrusted every
source of information except that of our own personal inspection.
Therefore, into nearly every section of this territory, from the St.
Lawrence and the Lakes to the Gulf, and from the Sea-Coast to the
Great River, the author has made repeated excursioBS in delighted con-
verse with the vegetable world.

Together with the plants of spontaneous growth which constitute
our proper Flora, we have included in our sketches also our exotic
Flora ; that is, all those plants which seem to us to have attained a
general cultivation in this country, either as useful, curious, or orna-
mental. By this accession, learners in the city, as well as in the coun-
try, may be supplied with subjects for illustration and for practice in
botanical analysis; and all with the means of acquainting themselves
with the beautiful tenants of their own fields, gardens, and conserva-
tories.

From the multiplication of species and genera we have studiously
refrained, believing that our books already contain more than Nature
will warrant. In the case of any doubtful specimen, which might have
served as the basis of a new species, or possibly genus, (had this been
our aim), we have always inclined rather to the extension of the limits
of some kindred group for its reception, having less apprehension of
error in this direction than in the opposite, with all due regard for the
permanence of true species. The same principle has compelled us to
disallow the claims of many reputed species of the best authors.

In the sequence of the Natural Orders, we have, in common with all
recent American authors, mainly adopted the arrangement of De Can-
dolle, an arrangement seen, in part, in the ' Flora of the State of New
York,' by Dr. Torrey. It commences with those Orders supposed to
be of the higher rank in organization, and proceeds gradually to the
lower, regarding the- completeness of the flower and the distinctness of
its parts as the general criterion of rank.

Tables of analysis by the dichotomal method were first in the Cl ass-
Book applied to the genera of plants, and introduced into general use.
They are now regarded as indispensable, and have been adopted into
their Floras by nearly every subsequent author. In the present new



PRE FACE. T

series, we have greatly modified, extended, and improved this system,
adapting it to the analysis of Species as well as of Orders and Genera.
By means of this addition, our Flora is now adapted to class exercises
in analysis throughout, from the Grand division to the Species an im-
improvement which will be duly appreciated by the practical teacher.

An analytical Key to the Orders, mainly artificial, more simple than
any hitherto constructed by us, founded, as in the previous edition,
almost solely upon characters taken from the flowers and leaves (not
fruit), will readily conduct the student to that Order where any given
flowering specimen may belong. Next, under the Order, a table of the
utmost simplicity, analyzes the Genera, mostly in such a way as to do
but little violence to their natural affinities. Lastly, under the Genus
(when large enough to require it) another table conducts to the species
in groups of twos or threes, which groups are instantly resolved by a
brief diagnosis in italics catching the eye in some part of the descrip-
tion which follows.

The limited space allowed us in the Flora compels us to use very
sparingly illustrative engravings in this part of our work, which occa-
sions us less regret considering the copiousness of illustration in the
scientific treatise in the former part. Those engravings are designed
partly with reference to the Flora, where frequent references will be
found. The few which we have adopted in the Flora, are prepared
with reference to the deficiencies of the former part. In other words
those which have no illustrative figure in the former treatise are gen-
e-rally furnished with one or more in the Flora. Throughout the work,
these are mostly from original sketches and drawings on wood by the
author's own hand. Others are copied from Lindley, Henfrey, Peyer, &c.

In addition to those colaborers in Botany, whose invaluable aid is
acknowledged in former editions, namely Dr. Edward E. Phelps, Dr.
James AV. Bobbins, Dr. Joseph Barratt, Dr. Albert G. Skinner, Mr. I.
A. Lapham, Dr. Truman Ricard, Dr. H. P. Sartwell, Dr. John Plum-
mer, Dr. S. B. Mead, Mr. S. S. Olney, &c., we have now to mention
with grateful acknowledgments other names of equal merit.

Dr. Josiah llale of Alexandria, La., has sent us a suit of specimens,
well nigh representing the entire Flora of that State.

Dr. A. W. Chapman of Apalachicola, Fla., presented us with many
of the more rare plants of Florida, on the occasion of our recent visit
to his own familiar walks.

Dr. H. A. Mettauer of Macon, Ga., has made contributions of great
value from that district, and from the vicinity of Tallahasse and St.
Marks, Fla., with many critical notices and observations on the Flora of
those States.



VI PREFACE.

Prof. William T. Feay, M.D., and Prof. Thomas G. Pond, both of
Savannah, Ga., have sent almost the entire Flora of that State, with
copious original notes and observations, such as result only from the
most extensive and accurate investigation.

Miss Sarah Keen of Bainbridge, Ga. (now of Mariana, Fla.), has also
sent an herbarium of beautiful specimens prepared by her own and her
sister's hands. To her, as well as to the gentlemen last mentioned, the
author is also indebted for every kind hospitality and encouragement
during a protracted herborizing tour along our southern coasts.

Mr. William Wright of Bainbridge, and Prof. N. H. Stuart of Quincy,
Florida (since deceased), also contributed to the consummation of our
work by many facilities afforded us in our laborious researches in their
respective precincts, and by the shelter of their hospitable mansions.

To Rev. Dr. Curtis of Hillsborougli, N. C., and to Rev. Dr. Bach-
man of Charleston, S. C., we are indebted for the free use of their very
complete herbaria, during our sojourn in their respective cities ; and
Mr. S. B. Buckley, recently of Yellow Springs, Ohio, has afforded us
similar facilities through his rich collection.

Dr. Cousens generously supplied us with the plants of the State of
Iowa. His name often appears in our pages.

Dr. George Engelmann, of St. Louis, has also favored us with the
free use of his admirable monograph of the genus Cuscuta, and with
many important notes in MS. on other difficult genera in our Flora,
especially on the Euphorbiacese. Our entire collection of specimens
belonging to this Order was, by his kind permission, submitted to his
inspection and determination.

The Rev. Chester Dewey, D.D., of Rochester, N. Y., the venerable
pioneer in American Cartography, lias placed us and our readers un-
der renewed obligations by additional contributions to the genus Ca-
rex, rendering it complete for the extended territory of our present
Flora.

Communications containing specimens, critical notices or corrections,
or soliciting information, will always, as heretofore, be acceptable.

BROOKLYN FEMALE ACADEMY, Dec., 1, 1860.



CONTENTS.



PREFACE. . . , 3

INTRODUCTION 9

CHAPTER I. THE LEADING PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE; MENTAL AND MORAL

DISCIPLINE ITS AIM AND END 9

CHAPTER II. THE DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANY 12

CHAPTER III. APPARATUS. METHODS OF STUDY 15

PART FIRST. STRUCTURAL BOTANY, OR ORGANOGI:APHY 17

CHAPTER I. PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM 17

CHAPTER II. THE TERM OF PLANT LIFE 19

CHAPTER III. THE PILENOGAMIA ; How DEVELOPED 22

CHAPTER IV. THE BOOT, OR DESCENDING Axis 24

CHAPTER V. THE STEM, OR ASCENDING Axis 30

CHAPTER VI. THE LEAF-BUD. VERNATION 41

CHAPTER VII. THE LEAF 4G

PHYLLOTAXY, OR LEAF- ARRANGEMENT 4fi

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF 50

OF THE STIPULES 51

OF THE VEINS 52

FORM OF THE LEAF, OR FIGURE 54

MARGIN 59

APEX 59

COMPOUND LEAVES GO

CHAPTER VIII. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF 63

CHAPTER IX. INFLORESCENCE G7

FLOWERING 75

CHAPTER X. MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER 77

ESTIVATION* 79

THE FLOB.VL ORGANS 81

THE PLAN OF THE FLOWER 83

CHAPTER XL THE FLORAL ENVELOPES. PERIANTH 91

CHAPTER XII. THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS *. 99

THE STAMENS. OR ANDRCECIUM 99

THE PISTILS, OR GYNCECIUM 104

THE OVULES 1 OS



Viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER XHL THE FRUIT ; PERICARP 110

CHAPTER XIV. THE FRUIT ; SEED 117

GERMINATION 121

CHAPTER XV. THE CRYPTOGAMIA. ORGANS 124

JPART SECOND. PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY 130

CHAPTER I. THE VEGETABLE CELL 130

CHAPTER II. THE TISSUES .' 134

CHAPTER III. THE EPIDERMAL SYSTEM 137

CHAPTER IV. THE LIGNEOUS SYSTEM 139

STRUCTURE OP LEAVES 145

CHAPTER V. OP VEGETATION, OR THE PHYSIOLOGY OP PLANT LIFE 146

FERTILIZATION 148

RIPENING OF FRUITS 151

CHAPTER VI. OF ABSORPTION 152

CIRCULATION 153

TRANSPIRATION 156

RESPIRATION 15G

CHAPTER VII. REVIEW OF THE PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION 158

PART TnraD. SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 164

CHAPTER I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 1 64

CHAPTER II. OF THE ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM 16G

CHAPTER III. OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM 169

CHAPTER IV. NOMENCLATURE. ANALYSIS 175

INDEX AND GLOSSARY 180

KEY ANALYTICAL TO THE NATURAL ORDERS 191

PART FOURTH. DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY ; THE FLORA 1 99

ORDERS OF THE POLYPETAL^E 200

ORDERS OF THE GAMOPETAL.E 393

ORDERS OF THE APETAL^: 601

ORDERS OF THE CONOIDEJS 659

ORDERS OF THE SPADICIFLORJ: 666

ORDERS OF THE FLORTDEJS. 676

ORDERS OF THE GRAMINOIDEJG 731

ORDERS OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA 810



INTRODUCTION



CHAPTER I.

LEADING PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE I MENTAL AND MORAL DISCIPLINE

ITS AIM AND END.

1. PLANTS AS RELATED TO MAN. The vegetable kingdom maintains towards
man several important relations. Besides its obvious utility us the source of his
food, shelter, clothing and medicine, it furnishes an exhaustless field for interesting
and disciplinary study.

2. PROOF THAT NATURE is RELATED TO MIND. This remark is commonplace.
But the fact stated is neither a necessity nor accident. Since the phenomena of
Nature are ordained subject to the cognizance of the human understanding while
yet their depths are unfathomable by it, it is evident that God made them for each
other. It is certainly conceivable that Ho might have ordained otherwise.

3. ILLUSTRATION. The phenomena of vegetation, or of nature in general, might
have been all simple and uniform, thus awakening' no curiosity, presenting no
motive for study. Or on the other hand, they might have involved plans so intri-
cate as to defy all efforts of the mind in their investigation. In this case, as in the
former, the mind and nature would have remained for ever estranged.

4. THE STUDY OF NATURE SUCCESSFUL. But an intermediate course hath
seemed good to an All-wise and Beneficent Creator. The works of His Hand aro
commensurate with the powers of the understanding. "We study them not in vain.
Step by step His plans are unfolded ; and research, although never reaching the
goal, yet never wearies, nor fails of its appropriate reward.

5. PLEASURABLE. Hence the study of nature, through this beautifully adjusted
relation, becomes a source of the purest pleasure, being ever accompanied by fresh
discoveries of truth in the plans and operations of a sublime Intelligence.

6. DISCIPLINARY. But a higher pyrpose than present pleasure is accomplished
by this means, namely, discipline. Entering: life as a mere germ, the soul expands
into intelligence and virtue through the teachings of surrounding objects and influ-
ences. In this good work the beauty, purity and wisdom displayed in the vegeta-
ble world bear a full share. These invite to investigation ; and their tendency is to
impress upon their votaries the characteristics of their own sincerity and loveliness.

7. CREATIVE WISDOM NEVER WORKS IN VAIN, nor merely in sport. Even the
flying cloud which now passes over the. sun has its mission ; the forms which it
assumes, and the colors, were each necessary and divinely appointed for that special
purpose. The hills and valleys, which seem scattered in accidental confusion, have
received each their contour and position by design, according to the ends foreseen.
Consequently, each stone or mineral composing these hills was also the work of
special design, as to its magnitude, form and place.



10 INTRODUCTION.

8. No ACCIDENT OR CAPRICE IN NATURE. Much more in the living kingdoms
bf nature may we look for au adequate purpose and end accomplished by every
movement and in every creature of the Divine hand. Each species is created aud
sustained to answer some worthy end in the vast plan ; and hence no individual,
animal or plant is to be regarded in science as insignificant, inasmuch as the indi-
vidual constitutes the species. Nor is accident or caprice to be found in the form- of
the leaf or the color of the flower. There is for each a special reason or adaptation
worthy of unerring wisdom.

L 9. OBJECT OF NATURAL SCIENCE. In the study of nature we are therefore
Concerned in reasons and ends as well as in forms and appearances. That investi-
gation which ceases pontented with the latter only is peurile. It may amuse, but
can scarcely instruct, and can never conduct to that purest source of the student's
enjoyment, namely, the recognition of Intelligence by intelligence.

10. DESIGN, A SETTLED PRINCIPLE IN SCIENCE. The end or purpose, it is
true, is not always as easily discerned as the form and fashion are. In a thousand in-
stances the end is yet inscrutable. Nevertheless it is now a settled principle of
science that there is an end a purpose a reason, for every form which we contem-
plate ; and tho adaptation to that end is as beautiful as the form itself. That the
tendril of the vine and tho runner of the strawberry were happily adapted to a
spt-cial purpose is readily admitted ; for that purpose is immediate and obvious to
all. Let us not then say that the spine, the stipule, or the varying tints of the rose,
were made merely in caprice, their uses being less obvious in the present state of
our knowledge.

11. DESIGN, AS DISTINGUISHED FROM "TYPICAL FORMS." In addition to this
sequence of cause and effect in nature, disclosing the Infinite Designer in all
things, as early taught by Paley in his " Natural Theology," another class of prin-
ciples more recently developed are shown by the author of " Typical Forms"
(McCosn), to indicate with a still clearer light the thoughts of the Omniscient Mind
in the operations of nature. A single observation often suffices for the discovery of
design, as in the down of the thistle, by means of which the seed is wafted on the
winds to flourish in distant lands. But a typical form or plan requires a long series
of observations for its discernment,

12. TYPICAL FORMS ILLUSTRATED. The scientific world were slow to learn
that the numerous organs of plants so diversified in form and use are all modeled
from a single type, one radical form, and that form, the kaf!

13. EESULTS. This interesting doctrine, now universally admitted, sheds a new
light upon nature, making it all luminous with the Divine Presence. It brings the
operations of the Great Architect almost within the grasp of human intelligence,
revealing the conceptions which occupied His mind before they were embodied in
actual existence by His word.

14. GRADUATED FORMS. Again, by continued observation, the principle of
graduated forms, allied to the last, appeared as another grand characteristic of na-
ture. This principle implies that while natural objects vary to wide and seemingly
irreconcilable extremes, their differences are never abrupt, but they pass by insen-
sible gradations and shades from species to species in a continuous scries.

15. ILLUSTRATION. Thus in magnitude, although the tiny moss is far removed
from the gigantic oak, yet a series connects them representing every imaginable in-
termediate grade in size. So in number, from the one-stamened saltwort to the
hundred-stamened rose, there is a connecting series, representing every intervening
number. Moreover, in form and figure, we pass from the thread-leafed pine to the
broad-leafed poplar through a series of every intermediate degree of leaf-expansion-,



LEADING PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE. 11

and from the regular-flowered crowfoot to the distorted monks-hood by a series
graduated in like manner.

16. NATURA NON SALTUS FACIT, said Linnaeus, in evident allusion to this bean-
tiful principle, which will constitute one of the most interesting themes of botanical
studv.

17. ACCOMODATED FORMS or organs is a phrase applied to another principle
in the Divine plan, the reverse of the first. This principle appears in the adaptation
of different organs hi different species to one common use ; of which there are many
familiar

18. ExAifPLES. Thus, the slender vine requires support. Now it throws out a
tendril for this very purpose, grasping whatever object it may reach, as in the grape.
Again, the prolonged leaf-stalk answers the same end, as in Clematis. Again, tho
supple stem itself, by its own coils supports itself, as in the hop ; and, lastly, ad-
ventitious rootlets in the ivy.

19. ANOTHER ILLUSTRATION. Reproduction is the general office of the seed ;
but this end is also accomplished, in different species, by nearly every other organ,
by buds, bulblets, bjulbs, tubers, cuttings, scions, and even leaves.

20. ANOTHER. This principle is also traced hi the nutritious deposits of plants,
which are generally made in the fruit ; but often tho root serves as the reservoir in-
Ht ;>a 1. or even the stem. And in caso of the fruit, the rich deposit is now found in
the pericarp of the peach, tho calyx of the apple, tho receptacle of the strawberry,
the cotyledons of the almond, tho bracts, flower-stalks, &c., of tho pine-apple. Thus
God's boundless resources of skill can accomplish either one purpose in a thousand
different ways, or a thousand different purposes by a single organ.

21. ARRESTED FORMS. This principle, demanding a wider range of generaliza-
tion than either of the foregoing, we state rather as a hypothesis, that the student
may hereafter test its probability by his own observations. The flowering plants
which clothe the earth hi such numbers, constituting the apparent vegetable world,
are hi truth but a minor part of it in respect to numbers. Numerous tribes, of lower
rank, embracing thousands of species, ro^cli far down the scale, beyond the utmost
limits of the microscope. Now a principle of analogy seems to pervade these ranks,
called the principle of arrested forma, binding all together in one consistent whole,
proving that for the vast realm of vegetation there was but one plan and one origin.

22. THE HYPOTHESIS STATED. The successive tribes of vegetation, beginning
with the lowest, have each their type or analogue hi the successive stages of em-
bryonic growth in the highest tribe.

23. MORE EXPLICITLY : tho, flowering plant, hi the course of its growth from
the pollen grain to the completed embryo, passes necessarily through a series of
transient forms. Now, suppose the development of the plant arrested at each of
these stages, so that these transient forms become permanent, we should have a
series of organisms analogous to the various tribes of Flowerless Plants ; the Pro-
tococcus, e. g., an arrested pollen grain ; the Oscillaria, an arrested pollen tube ; and
so on up to the Marsillea, whose organization answers to that of the full-formed
embryo of the flowering plant. Thus we might truly say of the lower plants that
they are the arrested forms of the higher.

24. INDIVIDUALITY OF THE PLANT. The plant is both material and immaterial.
Its form and substance is the material, its life the immaterial The material com-
mences existence as a single cell, and is ever changing. The immaterial gives to
that cell its individuality, and fixes inevitably its law of development, so that it
must grow up to become such a plant as it is, and by no possibility any other.

25. ILLUSTRATION. The embryonic cell of a rose may not differ materially, in tho



1 2 INTRODUCTION.

least, from that of the grape : but the individuality of each is widely different. This
principle in the one will make it a rose ; in the other, a grape. Individuality can
not be predicated of a stone.

26. LIFE AND DEATH ARE EQUALLY PREDICATED OP THE PLANT. The latter fol-
lows close upon the former, with unequal, inevitable step, and soon disputes posses-
sion in the same living fabric. The plant both lives and dies at once. Life passes
on from cell to cell, and in the parts which it has abandoned dissolution and decay
are soon manifest. Thus the whole existence of the individual is a contest Life
advances, death pursues, and ultimately triumphs. But not so in the species. Se-
curely transferred to the seed, the living immaterial plant mocks the destroyer, and
begins its career anew, multiplied a hundred fold.

27. THE SEED OP THE PLANT is ITS REDEMPTION. Through this appointment,