J. A. R. (John Arthur Ransome) Marriott.
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EUROPE AND BEYOND
WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR
The Makers of Modern Italy
George Canning and his Times
Lord Falkland and his Times
The Remaking of Modern Europe
Second Chambers
English Political Institutions
England since Waterloo (being Vol.
vii. of Oman's History of England)
The English Land System
The Evolution of Prussia (with C.
Grant Robertson)
The Eastern Question
English History in Shakspeare
The European Commonwealth
The Right to Work
Syndicalism: Political and Economic
EUROPE AND BEYOND
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF WORLD-
POLITICS IN THE LAST HALF-CENTURY
1870-1920
BY
J. A. R. MARRIOTT
HONORARY FELLOW, FORMERLY FELLOW AND LECTURER,
OF WORCESTER COLLEGE, OXFORD ; M.P. FOR OXFORD
WITH RIGHT MAPS
METHUEN & CO. LTD.
36 ESSEX STREET W.C.
LONDON
Jl
First Published in ig2i
PREFACE
THIS book is intended as a sequel to my earlier
volume on The Remaining of Modem Europe (1789-
1871), first published in 1909,^ and bas been written in
response to requests for a continuation of tbat narrative.
I must, however, beg my readers to remember that I offer
it only as a preliminary survey of a large tract of country.
The last half -century has not yet fallen into perspective,
and the time for writing the history of it has not, therefore,
in my judgment arrived. But as those who control our
educational destinies appear to think otherwise, and as
there is a natural and legitimate curiosity among many
students of foreign affairs to know something of the days
immediately preceding our own — a knowledge not always
easily attainable — I have reduced to a reasonably brief
and mainly (though not strictly) consecutive narrative
the substance of studies on which I have long been engaged.
In various chapters of this book I have not scrupled to
" lift " whole paragraphs from previously published works
of my own : notably from The Evolution of Prussia —
written in conjunction with my friend and former col-
league. Principal C. Grant Robertson (Clarendon Press,
1915) ; The Eastern Question (Clarendon Press, 1917),
The European Commonwealth (Clarendon Press, 1919), —
all these by kind permission of the Delegates of the
1 Methuen & Co. Twelfth Edition, 1920.
494079
VI EUROPE AND BEYOND
Clarendon Press; and England since Waterloo (Methuen
& Co., 1913; Fourth Edition, 1920). The substance of
Chapter VII. appeared as an article in The Edinburgh
Review for April 1919, and some paragraphs of Chapter
XIV. originally appeared in articles contributed by me to
The Fortnightly Review. For permission to reprint them
I have to thank the proprietors and editors of these
Reviews.
My indebtedness to other writers, and particularly to
the accomplished historians and publicists of France, is,
I think, suflSciently indicated and acknowledged in the
short bibliographies which I have suj0&xed to each chapter.
These bibliographies will, I hope, be found useful alike by
teachers in universities and schools, and by those general
readers whose wants I have tried to keep in mind, not less
than those of professed students of history. The work has
been written amid many distractions unfavourable to
literary concentration, and probably contains some errors,
despite all efforts to eliminate them. Should my readers
discover them I shall be grateful for corrections.
J. A. R. MARRIOTT
House or Commons Library
25th May 1921
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGK
Introductory : The New Era ..... 1
CHAPTER II
The New Germany and the New France (1871-75) . . 24
CHAPTER III
The Eastern Question (1875-98) . . . . .46
CHAPTER IV
The Ascendancy of Germany (1879-90). The Triple Alliance.
The German Empire in Africa . . . .69
CHAPTER V
The Egyptian Problem (1875-99) . . . .91
CHAPTER VI
The Expansion of Russia : The Franco-Russian Alliance
(1890-98) . . . . . . .103
CHAPTER VII
The United States of America as a World-Power (1898-1916) 124
CHAPTER VIII
The English in South Africa (1871-1902) . . .143
vii
viii EUROPE AND BEYOND
CHAPTER IX
PAQB
West and East (1839-1907) . . . . .164
CHAPTER X
The Diplomatic REVonfTioN (1890-1911) . . .189
CHAPTER XI
Thb Problem of the Near East (1888-1911) . . .215
CHAPTER XII
} 'J^ The Balkan League and the Balkan Wars (1912-13) . 230
CHAPTER XIII
j b The World-War (1914-18) 257
CHAPTER XIV
The World Settlement (1919-20) .... 300
Index . . . . . . . .327
LIST OF MAPS
FACmO PAGE
Central and South-Eastern Europe, 1871 . . . 1
The Nile ........ 91
From England since Waterloo, by J. A. E. Marriott.
Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Africa. Political Divisions, 1893 . . . .143
The Far East. Political Divisions after the Russo-
Japanese War . . . . . . .164
Central and South-Eastern Europe, 1921 . . . 300
The Adriatic and the Balkans . . . . .310
From European Commomcealth, by J. A. R. Marriott.
Clarendon Press, Oxford
Africa. Political Divisions, 1921 .... 314
The Pacific Islands . . . . . .317
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF
LEADING EVENTS
1870. Franco-German War.
The Vatican Council.
1871. Establishment of new German Empire — William I. proclaimed
German Emperor at Versailles (Jan. 18).
Italian capital transferred to Rome : completion of Italian unity.
Paris Commune (Mar. 18 to May 2).
Treaty of Frankfort (May 10).
Basutoland annexed to Cape Colony.
Griqualand West, British Dependency.
1872. Geneva Court of Arbitration.
The Dreikaiserbund (Sept.).
The KuUurkampf in Prussia.
1873. Russian conquest of Khiva.
Ashanti War begins.
Death of Napoleon III. (Jan, 9).
German occupation of France ends (Sept.).
1875. Establishment of the Third Republic in France.
Franco-German crisis (April to May).
England purchases Suez Canal shares.
Proclamation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India.
Balkan risings.
1876. Berlin Memorandum.
Serbia and Montenegro declare war on Turkey (July).
Revolution at Constantinople.
Bulgarian atrocities.
Annexation of the Transvaal.
1877. Russo -Turkish War.
1878. Pope Leo XIII. succeeds Pius IX.
Treaty of San Stephano (Mar. 3).
Congress and Treaty of Berlin (June and July).
Cyprus Convention.
Afghan War.
1879. Dual Alliance (Germany and Austria-Hungary) (Oct. 7).
Zulu War.
1880. Boer War.
Russian Nihilism — Assassination of Alexander II. (Mar. 13).
1881. Restoration of Transvaal Republic.
French Protectorate in Tunis.
Fall of Gambetta Ministry in France.
1882. British occupation of Egypt.
xil EUROPE AND BEYOND
1882. Triple Alliance (renewed 1887, 1891, 1902, 1912).
Foundation of Die Deutsche Kolonial-Gesellachaft.
1883. Revolt of the Soudan.
1884. Goixlon at Khartoum : his death (1885).
Fall of Ferry Ministry (April).
Germans in Africa.
Conference of Berlin : partition of Africa.
Battle of Omdurman (Oct. 13).
Grermany in the Pacific.
Treaty of Skiernewice (Reinsurance Treaty).
1885. Italian colony at Massowah.
England and Russia in Central Asia : Penjdeh incident.
Annexation of Burmah.
Fall of Gladstone Ministry (June).
Eastern Roumelia joins Bulgaria — War between Bulgaria and
Serbia.
1886. Boulanger, Minister of War (Jan. 7).
Royal Niger Company.
Transvaal goldfields.
Alexander of Battenberg kidnapped in Bulgaria.
1887. Italian defeat at Massowah.
Renewal of the Triple Alliance.
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg elected Prince of Bulgaria.
The " Schnaebele Incident " (April 20).
Boulanger plot fails (Oct.).
1888. British East Africa Company.
Death of Emperor William I. (Mar. 9).
Reign of Frederick (Mar. 9 to June 15).
Accession of William II. (June 15).
British Protectorate over North Borneo and Sarawak.
1890. Fall of Bismarck (Mar. 20).
Anglo-German agreement (July 1).
Heligoland ceded to Germany.
French Protectorate over Madagascar recognised.
British Protectorate over Zanzibar recognised.
Anglo-French treaty about Central Africa.
1891. Franco-Russian rapprochement.
French fleet at Kronstadt.
Anglo-Portuguese Agreement about Zambesi territories.
1892. Meeting of Czar Alexander III. and the Kaiser at Kiel.
1893. MatabeleWar.
Russian squadron visits Toulon.
1894. Death of Alexander III. — Accession of Nicholas II.
Armenian atrocities (and 1896).
Uganda Protectorate.
Chino -Japanese War.
1895. Treaty of Shimonoseki.
Japan acquires Port Arthur.
Opening of Kiel Canal.
Franco -Russian Alliance.
Cecil Rhodes, Premier of Cape Colony.
Venezuela boundary difficulty.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LEADING EVENTS xui
1895. Jameson raid into the Transvaal (Dec. 28).
1896. Kaiser's telegram to Kruger.
Defeat of Italians at Adowa.
Czar and Czarina visit Paris and London.
1897. Kitchener begins reconquest of the Soudan.
Crete proclaims union with Greece.
Grseco-Turkish War.
1898. The Fashoda crisis.
The Kaiser visits Constantinople and Jerusalem.
Spanish-American War.
The Philippines and Hawaii annexed by U.S.A.
Delcasse, Foreign Minister of France.
Germany occupies Kiaochow.
Russia occupies Port Arthur.
England occupies Wei-Hai-Wei.
Death of Bismarck (July 30).
First Hague Conference.
1899. Anglo-French agreement about Africa.
Outbreak of South African War.
British reverses in South Africa.
Boxer rising in China.
1900. European intervention in China.
Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener in South Africa.
British victories against the Boers.
1901. Death of Queen Victoria (Jan. 22).
1902. Anglo -Italian agreement about North Africa.
Opening of Trans-Siberian Railway (begun 1891).
Russo- Persian Convention.
Anglo -Japanese Treaty (renewed 1905).
Peace of Vereeniging.
1903. Miirsteg agreement about Macedonia.
1904. Anglo-French Entente.
Russo-Japanese War.
1905. Surrender of Port Arthur (Jan. 1).
Treaty of Portsmouth.
The Kaiser at Tangier.
Dismissal of M. Delcasse.
Separation of Norway from Sweden.
Revolutionary movement in Russia — " Bloody Sunday " (Jan.
22) in St. Petersburg.
1906. The First Duma (May 10).
France and Morocco.
Algeciras Conference (Jan. 15 to April 7).
Macedonian " Committee of Union and Progress " (transferred
to Salonika from Greneva).
1907. Second Hague Conference.
Anglo -Russian Convention — Triple Entente.
The Second Duma in Russia (Mar. 5).
Third Duma (Nov. 14).
1908. Portuguese Revolution.
Young Turk Revolution at Constantinople (July).
Policy of Baron von Aerenthal (1906-12). ^
XIV EUROPE AND BEYOND
1908. Tsar Ferdinand proclaims Bulgaria independent (Oct. 5).
Annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina (Oct. 7).
Crete declares itself united with Greece (Oct. 12).
1909. Counter-revolution at Constantinople (April).
Deposition of Sultan Abdul Hamid (April).
Armenian massacres (April.)
1910. Union of South Africa.
Venizelos, Prime Minister of Greece (Oct.).
1911. Morocco troubles — The Panther at Agadir.
Agadir crisis.
Italy declares war on Turkey (Sept. 29).
1912. Rising in Albania.
Treaty between Serbia and Bulgaria (Mar. 13).
Treaty between Greece and Bulgaria (May 10).
Montenegro declares war on Turkey (Oct. 8).
Treaty of Lausanne (Italy and Turkey) (Oct. 18).
War between Turkey and the Balkan League (Oct. to Dec).
Armistice (Dec. 3).
London Conferences (Dec).
1913. Enver Bey's coup d'&at at Constantinople (Jan. 23).
Balkan War renewed (Feb.).
Albanian autonomy.
Treaty of London (May 30) ends War of Balkan League.
Balkan War of Partition (June to July).
Intervention of Roumania (July).
Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10).
1914. June 12. Visit of Kaiser and Von Tirpitz to Archduke Franz
Ferdinand at Konopisht.
Kiel Canal reopened.
Franz Ferdinand shot at Serajevo.
Austro-Hungarian note to Serbia.
Austria declares war on Serbia.
Grermany declares war on Russia; on France (Aug.
3) ; on Belgium (Aug. 4).
Great Britaia declares war on Germany ; on Turkey
(Nov. 6).
Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
Great Britain and France declare war on Austria-
Hungary.
Fall of Lidge.
British Army landed in France.
Japan declares war on Germany.
First Battle of the Mame begins.
Fall of Antwerp.
First Battle of Ypres begins.
Great Britain declares war on Turkey.
Sir D. Sturdee's victory off the Falkiands.
1915. Feb. 18. U-boat blockade of England.
Naval attack on Dardanelles.
Allies land in Gallipoli.
Lusitania torpedoed.
Italy declares war on Austria.
23.
28.
July
23.
28.
Aug.
1.
4.
6.
12.
16.
16.
23.
Sept.
5
Oct.
9.
20.
Nov.
6.
Dec
8.
Feb.
18.
25.
April
25.
May
7.
23.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LEADING EVENTS xv
1915. July 9. Botha conquers South-Weet Africa.
Landing at Suvla Bay.
Allied landing at Salonika.
Austro-Germans occupy Belgrade.
Bulgaria at war with Serbia.
Withdrawal from Gallipoli.
1916. Feb. 18. Cameroons conquered.
Battle of Verdun begins.
Rebellion in Ireland.
Fall of Kut-el-Amara.
Battle of Jutland5____ \
Lord Kitchener lost at sea.
Somme battle begins.
Roumania enters the war.
Mr. Lloyd Greorge succeeds Mr. Asquith as Premier.
French victory at Verdun.
President Wilson's Peace Note.
1917 Feb. 1. Unrestricted U-boat war begins.
Revolution in Russia.
America declares war on Germany.
Bolshevist regime in Russia.
1918. Feb. 9. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
German offensive in the West begun ; renewed May
27 ; re-begun June 15.
General Foch allied Generalissimo.
Allied counter-attack.
Hindenburg line broken.
Bulgaria surrenders; King Ferdinand abdicates
(Oct. 4).
1. Versailles Conference opens.
Austria surrenders.
Bavarian Republic proclaimed.
Berlin Revolution ; the Kaiser abdicates.
Armistice terms accepted.
Masaryk elected President of Czecho -Slovak Republic.
Hungary proclaims a republic.
1919. Jan. 12. Meeting of Peace Conference at Paris (First Plenary
Session, Jan. 18).
12. Independence of Poland and Czecho -Slovakia recog-
nised.
25. Appointment of League of Nations Commission : two
for each great Power, five in all for the small
Powers.
Feb. 11. Ebert elected President of Germany.
April 28. Covenant of League of Nations adopted and published.
May 7. Peace Treaty presented to German delegates at
Trianon Palace Hotel.
7. Treaty between England, France, and U.S.A.
announced : Mandates for ex-German colonies
announced.
June 2. Triune Kingdom of Jugo-Slavia recognised by England
and France (already by Germany).
July
9.
Aug.
6.
Oct.
5.
9.
14.
Dec.
19.
Feb.
18.
21.
April
24.
29.
May
31.
June
5.
July
1.
Aug.
27.
Dec.
7.
15.
20.
Feb.
1.
Mar.
12.
April
6.
Nov.
8.
Feb.
9.
Mar.
21.
April
14.
July
18.
Sept.
27.
29.
Nov.
1.
4.
7.
9.
11.
15.
17.
Jan.
12.
1919.
June
28.
28.
28.
July
10.
10.
31.
Sept.
10.
10.
XVI EUROPE AND BEYOND
Peace Treaty with Germany signed at Versailles.
Anglo -French- American Alliance signed.
Polish Treaty signed.
President Wilson lays Treaty before Senate.
President Ebert ratifies Peace Treaty.
New Grerman Constitution adopted.
Austrian Peace Treaty signed at Versailles.
Treaty with the Serb-Croat-Slovene State signed at
Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
12. Union of South Africa accepts Mandate for German
South-West Africa.
Oct. 7. Peace Treaty ratified by Italy ; by King George V.
(Oct. 10) ; by President Poincare (Oct. 12).
Nov. 19. U.S. Senate fails to ratify Treaty.
27. Peace Treaty with Bulgaria signed at Neuilly.
Dec. 9. Anglo-French-American Memorandum to Italy on
Adriatic question.
10. Roumania signs Austrian Treaty.
1920. Jan. 10. Protocol of Peace Treaty signed at Paris — War ended
between Allies and Germany.
16. First Meeting of Council of League of Nations at Paris.
17. M. Paul Deschanel elected President of French
Republic.
June 4. Hungarian Treaty signed.
Aug. 16. Turkish Treaty signed at Sdvres.
Nov. 12. Treaty of RapaUo (Italy and Jugo-Slavia) signed.
Central it South- Eastern Europe 1871
6.V.<^vl>;sUf
EUROPE AND BEYOND
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
The New Era
Yes ; this is a new age ; a new world. — Bismarck.
The cardinal fact of geography in the twentieth century is the shorten-
ing of distances and the shrinkage of the globe .... The result is that
problems which a century ago or even fifty years ago were exclusively
European now concern the whole world. — J. C. Smuts.
THE fashion of the day demands that History The
should be divided into periods and studied as a ?f^fu*'j??
succession of epochs ; and the practice has a great deal to nfstory *
recommend it. By this method, attention is drawn to the
essential truth, that History is not a mere aggregation of
disconnected facts nor a series of interesting but isolated
dramatic episodes, but that it is an organic whole to which
each great period in world-history has made its appropriate
and indispensable contribution. " All epochs," as Turgot
justly observed, " are fastened together by a sequence of
causes and effects linking the present condition of the
world to all the conditions that have preceded it. The
human race, observed from its beginning, seems in the
eye of the philosopher to be one vast whole, which, like
each individual in it, has its infancy and growth. No
great change comes without having its causes in preceding
centuries, and it is the true object of History to observe
in connection with each epoch those secret dispositions
of events which prepare the way for great changes, as
:12 1 \ji :•.; : ::: • EUEOf E and beyond
well as the momentous conjunctions which more especially
bring them to pass."
The words of the philosopher-statesman of the ancien
regime would seem to suggest the spirit in which the
study of any particular period should be approached.
In the larger movements of History there is nothing
accidental, nothing casual, nothing which cannot be
distinguished either as cause or as effect. " The present,"
said Leibnitz, " is the creation of the past, and is big with
the future." These words contain a profound truth.
It is the primary function of the Historian to seek in the
myriad phenomena of human society the operation of
law, and to endeavour to discern in the distracting multi-
plicity of details the essential unities which underlie them.
Thus, and thus only, can the study of History be redeemed
from the charges of triviality and barrenness, which are
sometimes alleged against it, and be brought into line
with the scientific spirit which has infused and dominated
all the higher studies of our time.
The Period Does the history of the last half-century afford a basis
1870-1920 foj. ^^q\ treatment ? Can this period be truly described
as a distinct epoch in world-history ? If so, what are
its essential and outstanding features ? What is the
precise contribution which it lias made to the sum of the
ages ? To attempt an answer to these questions would
seem to be the appropriate function of an introductory
study, and such a study is all that can be attempted in
the following pages.
The Water- The year 1870-71, with which this narrative opens,
mniteinth forms bcyoud dispute one of the great watersheds of
Century Modern History. In the 'seventies of the nineteenth
century a prolonged process of historical evolution reached
its climax. Between 1815-71 many Nation-States came
to the birth, and the map of Europe was transfigured.
This transfiguration was, in the main, the resultant of
two forces, seemingly antagonistic, but in effect not
infrequently convergent : the force, on the one hand, of
disintegration ; on the other, of a fresh integration. One
obvious illustration of this process is afforded by the
INTRODUCTORY 3
decay and disruption of the Ottoman Empire. That
Empire was itself a wholly artificial product. It repre-
sented an alien mass superimposed upon vital elements,
which, though submerged for centuries, were never wholly
destroyed. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire per- Nation-
mitted the submerged nationalities to re-emerge and take making
their place as independent Nation- States in the European
polity. In 1821 the Greeks raised the standard of revolt,
and after a period of many vicissitudes the Kingdom of
the Hellenes was finally established by the Treaty of
London, 1832, and placed under the protection of Great
Britain, France, and Russia. British statesmanship was
also responsible, in large measure, for the birth of the
modern kingdom of Belgium. The attempt made by the
diplomatists of Vienna to set up a powerful middle kingdom
by the union of the Spanish or Austrian Netherlands
and the United Provinces had broken down ; the Belgian
people asserted their independence, and that independence
was guaranteed by the Treaty of London, 1839. A third
Nation-State came into being as a result of the Crimean
War. By the Treaty of Paris, 1856, the Principalities of
Moldavia and Wallachia virtually obtained their inde-
pendence ; but as separate States. So Europe decreed ; the
Roumanian people, however, had other views ; they took
the matter into their own hands, and, powerfully aided by
the good offices of Napoleon III., they formally proclaimed
the union of the two Roumanian principalities in 1861,
and achieved final independence by the Treaty of Berlin
(1878). In the same Treaty, two other Balkan States,
Serbia and Bulgaria, found their formal charter of emanci-
pation, though the independence of the former had been
virtually achieved in 1867, while the latter did not finally
throw off the suzerainty of the Sultan until 1908.
Meanwhile, two of the great powers had simultaneously Unification
attained the goal of national unity. The Franco-German ^^ ?YtT"'^
War, 1870-71, put the coping-stone upon the work of '^" ^^
Bismarck in Germany, and upon that of Mazzini, Cavour,
Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel in Italy. The German
attack upon France compelled Napoleon III. to withdraw
4 EUROPE AND BEYOND
the French garrison from Rome and enabled Victor
Emmanuel to transfer his capital from Florence to the
city, which was unmistakably indicated as the capital of
a united Italy. The German victories in France enabled
Bismarck to transform the North-German confederation
into the new German Empire and to persuade the German
State south of the Main (except German- Austria) to come
into it. Thus was the unity of Italy and of Germany at
last achieved, and the doctrine of Nationalism triumphantly
vindicated.
The Nor was the triumph of the doctrine confined to Europe.
British Nation-States have come into being under the aegis of the
we3th°of British Crown in North America, in South Africa, and in
Nations the Pacific. The Canadian Dominion, the Commonwealth
of Australia, the Union of South Africa, and New Zealand,
are not the less Nation-States because they are, and
ardently desire to remain, constituent parts of the British
Commonwealth. The South American republics have
attained to the dignity of statehood in independence of
the European States to which they owed their birth.
The The making of Nation-States may thus be regarded as
Advent of the characteristic work of the nineteenth century, and
state,*^'"""" more particularly of the period between 1815 and 1878.
Fifteenth That work proceeded under the domination of two forces,
Nineteenth ^^^^ ^f which received a decided impulse from the first
French Revolution and indirectly and undesignedly from
the Napoleonic Conquests : the idea of nationahty and the
principle of liberty. Yet, as regards nation-building, the
nineteenth century merely placed the coping-stone upon
an edifice which had been in gradual course of erection
ever since the last years of the fifteenth century. The
main process of European history during the four centuries
that closed in 1870-78 may be scientifically described as
the evolution of the States-system, or alternatively as the
triumph of Nationahsm. The emergence of the Nation-
State was greatly facilitated, if not actually caused, by the
The break up of the Mediseval Empire and by the decadence of
Empire and ^j^p oBcumenical authority of the Papacy. The old Roman
apacy Ej^pirg j^^^ embodied the principle of unity and centralisa-
INTRODUCTORY 5
tion. On its fall in the fifth century it bequeathed to man-
kind the idea of a World-State and a universal Church,
but the immediate result of the overthrow of the Roman
Empire was World-anarchy. From that anarchy, Europe
was eventually rescued by two institutions both in out-
ward form majestic and imposing, and one in fact powerful
and pervasive : the Holy Roman Empire and the Holy
WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR
The Makers of Modern Italy
George Canning and his Times
Lord Falkland and his Times
The Remaking of Modern Europe
Second Chambers
English Political Institutions
England since Waterloo (being Vol.
vii. of Oman's History of England)
The English Land System
The Evolution of Prussia (with C.
Grant Robertson)
The Eastern Question
English History in Shakspeare
The European Commonwealth
The Right to Work
Syndicalism: Political and Economic
EUROPE AND BEYOND
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF WORLD-
POLITICS IN THE LAST HALF-CENTURY
1870-1920
BY
J. A. R. MARRIOTT
HONORARY FELLOW, FORMERLY FELLOW AND LECTURER,
OF WORCESTER COLLEGE, OXFORD ; M.P. FOR OXFORD
WITH RIGHT MAPS
METHUEN & CO. LTD.
36 ESSEX STREET W.C.
LONDON
Jl
First Published in ig2i
PREFACE
THIS book is intended as a sequel to my earlier
volume on The Remaining of Modem Europe (1789-
1871), first published in 1909,^ and bas been written in
response to requests for a continuation of tbat narrative.
I must, however, beg my readers to remember that I offer
it only as a preliminary survey of a large tract of country.
The last half -century has not yet fallen into perspective,
and the time for writing the history of it has not, therefore,
in my judgment arrived. But as those who control our
educational destinies appear to think otherwise, and as
there is a natural and legitimate curiosity among many
students of foreign affairs to know something of the days
immediately preceding our own — a knowledge not always
easily attainable — I have reduced to a reasonably brief
and mainly (though not strictly) consecutive narrative
the substance of studies on which I have long been engaged.
In various chapters of this book I have not scrupled to
" lift " whole paragraphs from previously published works
of my own : notably from The Evolution of Prussia —
written in conjunction with my friend and former col-
league. Principal C. Grant Robertson (Clarendon Press,
1915) ; The Eastern Question (Clarendon Press, 1917),
The European Commonwealth (Clarendon Press, 1919), —
all these by kind permission of the Delegates of the
1 Methuen & Co. Twelfth Edition, 1920.
494079
VI EUROPE AND BEYOND
Clarendon Press; and England since Waterloo (Methuen
& Co., 1913; Fourth Edition, 1920). The substance of
Chapter VII. appeared as an article in The Edinburgh
Review for April 1919, and some paragraphs of Chapter
XIV. originally appeared in articles contributed by me to
The Fortnightly Review. For permission to reprint them
I have to thank the proprietors and editors of these
Reviews.
My indebtedness to other writers, and particularly to
the accomplished historians and publicists of France, is,
I think, suflSciently indicated and acknowledged in the
short bibliographies which I have suj0&xed to each chapter.
These bibliographies will, I hope, be found useful alike by
teachers in universities and schools, and by those general
readers whose wants I have tried to keep in mind, not less
than those of professed students of history. The work has
been written amid many distractions unfavourable to
literary concentration, and probably contains some errors,
despite all efforts to eliminate them. Should my readers
discover them I shall be grateful for corrections.
J. A. R. MARRIOTT
House or Commons Library
25th May 1921
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGK
Introductory : The New Era ..... 1
CHAPTER II
The New Germany and the New France (1871-75) . . 24
CHAPTER III
The Eastern Question (1875-98) . . . . .46
CHAPTER IV
The Ascendancy of Germany (1879-90). The Triple Alliance.
The German Empire in Africa . . . .69
CHAPTER V
The Egyptian Problem (1875-99) . . . .91
CHAPTER VI
The Expansion of Russia : The Franco-Russian Alliance
(1890-98) . . . . . . .103
CHAPTER VII
The United States of America as a World-Power (1898-1916) 124
CHAPTER VIII
The English in South Africa (1871-1902) . . .143
vii
viii EUROPE AND BEYOND
CHAPTER IX
PAQB
West and East (1839-1907) . . . . .164
CHAPTER X
The Diplomatic REVonfTioN (1890-1911) . . .189
CHAPTER XI
Thb Problem of the Near East (1888-1911) . . .215
CHAPTER XII
} 'J^ The Balkan League and the Balkan Wars (1912-13) . 230
CHAPTER XIII
j b The World-War (1914-18) 257
CHAPTER XIV
The World Settlement (1919-20) .... 300
Index . . . . . . . .327
LIST OF MAPS
FACmO PAGE
Central and South-Eastern Europe, 1871 . . . 1
The Nile ........ 91
From England since Waterloo, by J. A. E. Marriott.
Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Africa. Political Divisions, 1893 . . . .143
The Far East. Political Divisions after the Russo-
Japanese War . . . . . . .164
Central and South-Eastern Europe, 1921 . . . 300
The Adriatic and the Balkans . . . . .310
From European Commomcealth, by J. A. R. Marriott.
Clarendon Press, Oxford
Africa. Political Divisions, 1921 .... 314
The Pacific Islands . . . . . .317
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF
LEADING EVENTS
1870. Franco-German War.
The Vatican Council.
1871. Establishment of new German Empire — William I. proclaimed
German Emperor at Versailles (Jan. 18).
Italian capital transferred to Rome : completion of Italian unity.
Paris Commune (Mar. 18 to May 2).
Treaty of Frankfort (May 10).
Basutoland annexed to Cape Colony.
Griqualand West, British Dependency.
1872. Geneva Court of Arbitration.
The Dreikaiserbund (Sept.).
The KuUurkampf in Prussia.
1873. Russian conquest of Khiva.
Ashanti War begins.
Death of Napoleon III. (Jan, 9).
German occupation of France ends (Sept.).
1875. Establishment of the Third Republic in France.
Franco-German crisis (April to May).
England purchases Suez Canal shares.
Proclamation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India.
Balkan risings.
1876. Berlin Memorandum.
Serbia and Montenegro declare war on Turkey (July).
Revolution at Constantinople.
Bulgarian atrocities.
Annexation of the Transvaal.
1877. Russo -Turkish War.
1878. Pope Leo XIII. succeeds Pius IX.
Treaty of San Stephano (Mar. 3).
Congress and Treaty of Berlin (June and July).
Cyprus Convention.
Afghan War.
1879. Dual Alliance (Germany and Austria-Hungary) (Oct. 7).
Zulu War.
1880. Boer War.
Russian Nihilism — Assassination of Alexander II. (Mar. 13).
1881. Restoration of Transvaal Republic.
French Protectorate in Tunis.
Fall of Gambetta Ministry in France.
1882. British occupation of Egypt.
xil EUROPE AND BEYOND
1882. Triple Alliance (renewed 1887, 1891, 1902, 1912).
Foundation of Die Deutsche Kolonial-Gesellachaft.
1883. Revolt of the Soudan.
1884. Goixlon at Khartoum : his death (1885).
Fall of Ferry Ministry (April).
Germans in Africa.
Conference of Berlin : partition of Africa.
Battle of Omdurman (Oct. 13).
Grermany in the Pacific.
Treaty of Skiernewice (Reinsurance Treaty).
1885. Italian colony at Massowah.
England and Russia in Central Asia : Penjdeh incident.
Annexation of Burmah.
Fall of Gladstone Ministry (June).
Eastern Roumelia joins Bulgaria — War between Bulgaria and
Serbia.
1886. Boulanger, Minister of War (Jan. 7).
Royal Niger Company.
Transvaal goldfields.
Alexander of Battenberg kidnapped in Bulgaria.
1887. Italian defeat at Massowah.
Renewal of the Triple Alliance.
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg elected Prince of Bulgaria.
The " Schnaebele Incident " (April 20).
Boulanger plot fails (Oct.).
1888. British East Africa Company.
Death of Emperor William I. (Mar. 9).
Reign of Frederick (Mar. 9 to June 15).
Accession of William II. (June 15).
British Protectorate over North Borneo and Sarawak.
1890. Fall of Bismarck (Mar. 20).
Anglo-German agreement (July 1).
Heligoland ceded to Germany.
French Protectorate over Madagascar recognised.
British Protectorate over Zanzibar recognised.
Anglo-French treaty about Central Africa.
1891. Franco-Russian rapprochement.
French fleet at Kronstadt.
Anglo-Portuguese Agreement about Zambesi territories.
1892. Meeting of Czar Alexander III. and the Kaiser at Kiel.
1893. MatabeleWar.
Russian squadron visits Toulon.
1894. Death of Alexander III. — Accession of Nicholas II.
Armenian atrocities (and 1896).
Uganda Protectorate.
Chino -Japanese War.
1895. Treaty of Shimonoseki.
Japan acquires Port Arthur.
Opening of Kiel Canal.
Franco -Russian Alliance.
Cecil Rhodes, Premier of Cape Colony.
Venezuela boundary difficulty.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LEADING EVENTS xui
1895. Jameson raid into the Transvaal (Dec. 28).
1896. Kaiser's telegram to Kruger.
Defeat of Italians at Adowa.
Czar and Czarina visit Paris and London.
1897. Kitchener begins reconquest of the Soudan.
Crete proclaims union with Greece.
Grseco-Turkish War.
1898. The Fashoda crisis.
The Kaiser visits Constantinople and Jerusalem.
Spanish-American War.
The Philippines and Hawaii annexed by U.S.A.
Delcasse, Foreign Minister of France.
Germany occupies Kiaochow.
Russia occupies Port Arthur.
England occupies Wei-Hai-Wei.
Death of Bismarck (July 30).
First Hague Conference.
1899. Anglo-French agreement about Africa.
Outbreak of South African War.
British reverses in South Africa.
Boxer rising in China.
1900. European intervention in China.
Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener in South Africa.
British victories against the Boers.
1901. Death of Queen Victoria (Jan. 22).
1902. Anglo -Italian agreement about North Africa.
Opening of Trans-Siberian Railway (begun 1891).
Russo- Persian Convention.
Anglo -Japanese Treaty (renewed 1905).
Peace of Vereeniging.
1903. Miirsteg agreement about Macedonia.
1904. Anglo-French Entente.
Russo-Japanese War.
1905. Surrender of Port Arthur (Jan. 1).
Treaty of Portsmouth.
The Kaiser at Tangier.
Dismissal of M. Delcasse.
Separation of Norway from Sweden.
Revolutionary movement in Russia — " Bloody Sunday " (Jan.
22) in St. Petersburg.
1906. The First Duma (May 10).
France and Morocco.
Algeciras Conference (Jan. 15 to April 7).
Macedonian " Committee of Union and Progress " (transferred
to Salonika from Greneva).
1907. Second Hague Conference.
Anglo -Russian Convention — Triple Entente.
The Second Duma in Russia (Mar. 5).
Third Duma (Nov. 14).
1908. Portuguese Revolution.
Young Turk Revolution at Constantinople (July).
Policy of Baron von Aerenthal (1906-12). ^
XIV EUROPE AND BEYOND
1908. Tsar Ferdinand proclaims Bulgaria independent (Oct. 5).
Annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina (Oct. 7).
Crete declares itself united with Greece (Oct. 12).
1909. Counter-revolution at Constantinople (April).
Deposition of Sultan Abdul Hamid (April).
Armenian massacres (April.)
1910. Union of South Africa.
Venizelos, Prime Minister of Greece (Oct.).
1911. Morocco troubles — The Panther at Agadir.
Agadir crisis.
Italy declares war on Turkey (Sept. 29).
1912. Rising in Albania.
Treaty between Serbia and Bulgaria (Mar. 13).
Treaty between Greece and Bulgaria (May 10).
Montenegro declares war on Turkey (Oct. 8).
Treaty of Lausanne (Italy and Turkey) (Oct. 18).
War between Turkey and the Balkan League (Oct. to Dec).
Armistice (Dec. 3).
London Conferences (Dec).
1913. Enver Bey's coup d'&at at Constantinople (Jan. 23).
Balkan War renewed (Feb.).
Albanian autonomy.
Treaty of London (May 30) ends War of Balkan League.
Balkan War of Partition (June to July).
Intervention of Roumania (July).
Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10).
1914. June 12. Visit of Kaiser and Von Tirpitz to Archduke Franz
Ferdinand at Konopisht.
Kiel Canal reopened.
Franz Ferdinand shot at Serajevo.
Austro-Hungarian note to Serbia.
Austria declares war on Serbia.
Grermany declares war on Russia; on France (Aug.
3) ; on Belgium (Aug. 4).
Great Britaia declares war on Germany ; on Turkey
(Nov. 6).
Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
Great Britain and France declare war on Austria-
Hungary.
Fall of Lidge.
British Army landed in France.
Japan declares war on Germany.
First Battle of the Mame begins.
Fall of Antwerp.
First Battle of Ypres begins.
Great Britain declares war on Turkey.
Sir D. Sturdee's victory off the Falkiands.
1915. Feb. 18. U-boat blockade of England.
Naval attack on Dardanelles.
Allies land in Gallipoli.
Lusitania torpedoed.
Italy declares war on Austria.
23.
28.
July
23.
28.
Aug.
1.
4.
6.
12.
16.
16.
23.
Sept.
5
Oct.
9.
20.
Nov.
6.
Dec
8.
Feb.
18.
25.
April
25.
May
7.
23.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LEADING EVENTS xv
1915. July 9. Botha conquers South-Weet Africa.
Landing at Suvla Bay.
Allied landing at Salonika.
Austro-Germans occupy Belgrade.
Bulgaria at war with Serbia.
Withdrawal from Gallipoli.
1916. Feb. 18. Cameroons conquered.
Battle of Verdun begins.
Rebellion in Ireland.
Fall of Kut-el-Amara.
Battle of Jutland5____ \
Lord Kitchener lost at sea.
Somme battle begins.
Roumania enters the war.
Mr. Lloyd Greorge succeeds Mr. Asquith as Premier.
French victory at Verdun.
President Wilson's Peace Note.
1917 Feb. 1. Unrestricted U-boat war begins.
Revolution in Russia.
America declares war on Germany.
Bolshevist regime in Russia.
1918. Feb. 9. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
German offensive in the West begun ; renewed May
27 ; re-begun June 15.
General Foch allied Generalissimo.
Allied counter-attack.
Hindenburg line broken.
Bulgaria surrenders; King Ferdinand abdicates
(Oct. 4).
1. Versailles Conference opens.
Austria surrenders.
Bavarian Republic proclaimed.
Berlin Revolution ; the Kaiser abdicates.
Armistice terms accepted.
Masaryk elected President of Czecho -Slovak Republic.
Hungary proclaims a republic.
1919. Jan. 12. Meeting of Peace Conference at Paris (First Plenary
Session, Jan. 18).
12. Independence of Poland and Czecho -Slovakia recog-
nised.
25. Appointment of League of Nations Commission : two
for each great Power, five in all for the small
Powers.
Feb. 11. Ebert elected President of Germany.
April 28. Covenant of League of Nations adopted and published.
May 7. Peace Treaty presented to German delegates at
Trianon Palace Hotel.
7. Treaty between England, France, and U.S.A.
announced : Mandates for ex-German colonies
announced.
June 2. Triune Kingdom of Jugo-Slavia recognised by England
and France (already by Germany).
July
9.
Aug.
6.
Oct.
5.
9.
14.
Dec.
19.
Feb.
18.
21.
April
24.
29.
May
31.
June
5.
July
1.
Aug.
27.
Dec.
7.
15.
20.
Feb.
1.
Mar.
12.
April
6.
Nov.
8.
Feb.
9.
Mar.
21.
April
14.
July
18.
Sept.
27.
29.
Nov.
1.
4.
7.
9.
11.
15.
17.
Jan.
12.
1919.
June
28.
28.
28.
July
10.
10.
31.
Sept.
10.
10.
XVI EUROPE AND BEYOND
Peace Treaty with Germany signed at Versailles.
Anglo -French- American Alliance signed.
Polish Treaty signed.
President Wilson lays Treaty before Senate.
President Ebert ratifies Peace Treaty.
New Grerman Constitution adopted.
Austrian Peace Treaty signed at Versailles.
Treaty with the Serb-Croat-Slovene State signed at
Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
12. Union of South Africa accepts Mandate for German
South-West Africa.
Oct. 7. Peace Treaty ratified by Italy ; by King George V.
(Oct. 10) ; by President Poincare (Oct. 12).
Nov. 19. U.S. Senate fails to ratify Treaty.
27. Peace Treaty with Bulgaria signed at Neuilly.
Dec. 9. Anglo-French-American Memorandum to Italy on
Adriatic question.
10. Roumania signs Austrian Treaty.
1920. Jan. 10. Protocol of Peace Treaty signed at Paris — War ended
between Allies and Germany.
16. First Meeting of Council of League of Nations at Paris.
17. M. Paul Deschanel elected President of French
Republic.
June 4. Hungarian Treaty signed.
Aug. 16. Turkish Treaty signed at Sdvres.
Nov. 12. Treaty of RapaUo (Italy and Jugo-Slavia) signed.
Central it South- Eastern Europe 1871
6.V.<^vl>;sUf
EUROPE AND BEYOND
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
The New Era
Yes ; this is a new age ; a new world. — Bismarck.
The cardinal fact of geography in the twentieth century is the shorten-
ing of distances and the shrinkage of the globe .... The result is that
problems which a century ago or even fifty years ago were exclusively
European now concern the whole world. — J. C. Smuts.
THE fashion of the day demands that History The
should be divided into periods and studied as a ?f^fu*'j??
succession of epochs ; and the practice has a great deal to nfstory *
recommend it. By this method, attention is drawn to the
essential truth, that History is not a mere aggregation of
disconnected facts nor a series of interesting but isolated
dramatic episodes, but that it is an organic whole to which
each great period in world-history has made its appropriate
and indispensable contribution. " All epochs," as Turgot
justly observed, " are fastened together by a sequence of
causes and effects linking the present condition of the
world to all the conditions that have preceded it. The
human race, observed from its beginning, seems in the
eye of the philosopher to be one vast whole, which, like
each individual in it, has its infancy and growth. No
great change comes without having its causes in preceding
centuries, and it is the true object of History to observe
in connection with each epoch those secret dispositions
of events which prepare the way for great changes, as
:12 1 \ji :•.; : ::: • EUEOf E and beyond
well as the momentous conjunctions which more especially
bring them to pass."
The words of the philosopher-statesman of the ancien
regime would seem to suggest the spirit in which the
study of any particular period should be approached.
In the larger movements of History there is nothing
accidental, nothing casual, nothing which cannot be
distinguished either as cause or as effect. " The present,"
said Leibnitz, " is the creation of the past, and is big with
the future." These words contain a profound truth.
It is the primary function of the Historian to seek in the
myriad phenomena of human society the operation of
law, and to endeavour to discern in the distracting multi-
plicity of details the essential unities which underlie them.
Thus, and thus only, can the study of History be redeemed
from the charges of triviality and barrenness, which are
sometimes alleged against it, and be brought into line
with the scientific spirit which has infused and dominated
all the higher studies of our time.
The Period Does the history of the last half-century afford a basis
1870-1920 foj. ^^q\ treatment ? Can this period be truly described
as a distinct epoch in world-history ? If so, what are
its essential and outstanding features ? What is the
precise contribution which it lias made to the sum of the
ages ? To attempt an answer to these questions would
seem to be the appropriate function of an introductory
study, and such a study is all that can be attempted in
the following pages.
The Water- The year 1870-71, with which this narrative opens,
mniteinth forms bcyoud dispute one of the great watersheds of
Century Modern History. In the 'seventies of the nineteenth
century a prolonged process of historical evolution reached
its climax. Between 1815-71 many Nation-States came
to the birth, and the map of Europe was transfigured.
This transfiguration was, in the main, the resultant of
two forces, seemingly antagonistic, but in effect not
infrequently convergent : the force, on the one hand, of
disintegration ; on the other, of a fresh integration. One
obvious illustration of this process is afforded by the
INTRODUCTORY 3
decay and disruption of the Ottoman Empire. That
Empire was itself a wholly artificial product. It repre-
sented an alien mass superimposed upon vital elements,
which, though submerged for centuries, were never wholly
destroyed. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire per- Nation-
mitted the submerged nationalities to re-emerge and take making
their place as independent Nation- States in the European
polity. In 1821 the Greeks raised the standard of revolt,
and after a period of many vicissitudes the Kingdom of
the Hellenes was finally established by the Treaty of
London, 1832, and placed under the protection of Great
Britain, France, and Russia. British statesmanship was
also responsible, in large measure, for the birth of the
modern kingdom of Belgium. The attempt made by the
diplomatists of Vienna to set up a powerful middle kingdom
by the union of the Spanish or Austrian Netherlands
and the United Provinces had broken down ; the Belgian
people asserted their independence, and that independence
was guaranteed by the Treaty of London, 1839. A third
Nation-State came into being as a result of the Crimean
War. By the Treaty of Paris, 1856, the Principalities of
Moldavia and Wallachia virtually obtained their inde-
pendence ; but as separate States. So Europe decreed ; the
Roumanian people, however, had other views ; they took
the matter into their own hands, and, powerfully aided by
the good offices of Napoleon III., they formally proclaimed
the union of the two Roumanian principalities in 1861,
and achieved final independence by the Treaty of Berlin
(1878). In the same Treaty, two other Balkan States,
Serbia and Bulgaria, found their formal charter of emanci-
pation, though the independence of the former had been
virtually achieved in 1867, while the latter did not finally
throw off the suzerainty of the Sultan until 1908.
Meanwhile, two of the great powers had simultaneously Unification
attained the goal of national unity. The Franco-German ^^ ?YtT"'^
War, 1870-71, put the coping-stone upon the work of '^" ^^
Bismarck in Germany, and upon that of Mazzini, Cavour,
Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel in Italy. The German
attack upon France compelled Napoleon III. to withdraw
4 EUROPE AND BEYOND
the French garrison from Rome and enabled Victor
Emmanuel to transfer his capital from Florence to the
city, which was unmistakably indicated as the capital of
a united Italy. The German victories in France enabled
Bismarck to transform the North-German confederation
into the new German Empire and to persuade the German
State south of the Main (except German- Austria) to come
into it. Thus was the unity of Italy and of Germany at
last achieved, and the doctrine of Nationalism triumphantly
vindicated.
The Nor was the triumph of the doctrine confined to Europe.
British Nation-States have come into being under the aegis of the
we3th°of British Crown in North America, in South Africa, and in
Nations the Pacific. The Canadian Dominion, the Commonwealth
of Australia, the Union of South Africa, and New Zealand,
are not the less Nation-States because they are, and
ardently desire to remain, constituent parts of the British
Commonwealth. The South American republics have
attained to the dignity of statehood in independence of
the European States to which they owed their birth.
The The making of Nation-States may thus be regarded as
Advent of the characteristic work of the nineteenth century, and
state,*^'"""" more particularly of the period between 1815 and 1878.
Fifteenth That work proceeded under the domination of two forces,
Nineteenth ^^^^ ^f which received a decided impulse from the first
French Revolution and indirectly and undesignedly from
the Napoleonic Conquests : the idea of nationahty and the
principle of liberty. Yet, as regards nation-building, the
nineteenth century merely placed the coping-stone upon
an edifice which had been in gradual course of erection
ever since the last years of the fifteenth century. The
main process of European history during the four centuries
that closed in 1870-78 may be scientifically described as
the evolution of the States-system, or alternatively as the
triumph of Nationahsm. The emergence of the Nation-
State was greatly facilitated, if not actually caused, by the
The break up of the Mediseval Empire and by the decadence of
Empire and ^j^p oBcumenical authority of the Papacy. The old Roman
apacy Ej^pirg j^^^ embodied the principle of unity and centralisa-
INTRODUCTORY 5
tion. On its fall in the fifth century it bequeathed to man-
kind the idea of a World-State and a universal Church,
but the immediate result of the overthrow of the Roman
Empire was World-anarchy. From that anarchy, Europe
was eventually rescued by two institutions both in out-
ward form majestic and imposing, and one in fact powerful
and pervasive : the Holy Roman Empire and the Holy
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