John Henry Wigmore.
The principles of judicial proof as given by logic, psychology, and general experience, and illustrated in judicial trials; online
. (page 1 of 175)
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UWART
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
RIVERSIDE
I? id
THE PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF
THE
PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF
AS GIVEN BY
LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY, AND GENERAL EXPERIENCE
And Illustrated In
JUDICIAL TRIALS
COMPILED BY
JOHN HENRY WIGMORE
/.Y
PROFESSOR OF THE LAW OF EVIDENCE IN NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
AUTHOR OF "a SYSTEM OF EVIDENCE IN TRIALS AT COMMON
LAW," "A POCKET CODE OF EVIDENCE," ETC.
BOSTON
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
1913
Copyright, 1913,
By John H. Wkjmore.
All rights reserved
Set up and eUctrotypcd by J. S. Gushing Co., Norwood, Mass. , U.S.A.
HANS GROSS
PROFESSOR OF CRIMINAL LAW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ
WHO HAS DONE MORE
THAN" ANY OTHER MAN IN MODERN TIMES
TO ENCOURAGE THE APPLICATION OP SCIENCE TO JUDICIAIi PROOF
THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED
IN TOKEN OF
PERSONAL GRATITUDE
AND
PROFESSIONAL ADMIRATION"
CONTENTS
THE PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF AS GIVEN
BY LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY, AND GENERAL EXPE-
RIENCE, AND ILLUSTRATED BY JUDICIAL TRIALS
Page
Introduction 1
INTRODUCTORY: GENERAL THEORY OF PROOF
1. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 5
2. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 15
PART I: CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE
3. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 30
TITLE I: JBVIDENCE TO PROVE AX EVEXT, CONDITION, QITAL-
ITY, CAUSE, OR EFFECT OF EXTERNAL INANIMATE NATURE
4. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 31
5. Robert Salmon's Case 44
6. Bradford v. Insurance Co 45
7. Eidt V. Cutter 45
8. East St. Louis v. Wiggins Ferry Co 47
9. Knowles v. State 47
10. Golden Reward Mining Co. v. Buxton Mining Co 48
11. Chicago C. & St. Louis R. Co. v. Dixon 52
12. Food Adulteration Tests 55
13. Poison Tests 56
TITLE II: EVIDENCE TO PROVE IDENTITY
14. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 63
15. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence" 65
16. The Cranberry Cask Case 72
17. Downie and Milnes' Case 72
18. The Chicago Anarchists' Case 72
19. Webber's Case 73
20. The Tichborne Case 73
21. Joseph Lesurques' Case 77
22. Thomas Hoag's Case 77
23. Karl Franz' Case ' 78
24. The Webster- Parkman Case 78
25. Finger-print Identification 79
26. People v. Jennings 83
TITLE III: EVIDENCE TO PROVE A HUMAN TRAIT, QUALITY,
OR CONDITION
27. John H. Wigmore, "Principles of Judicial Proof " 89
SUBTITLE A: EVIDENCE TO PROVE MORAL CHARACTER
28. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 91
vii
^^ii CONTENTS
SUBTITLE B : EVIDENCE TO PROVE MOTIVE
Page
29. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 94
SUBTITLE C: EVIDENCE TO PROVE KNOWLEDGE, BELIEF.
OR CONSCIOUSNESS
30. John II. Wigmore, '* Principles of Judicial Proof " 96
31. Kugene Aram's Case 98
32. The Perrcaus' Case 99
33. Lord Chancellor Macclesfield's Case 99
34. Mary Blandy's Case 101
35. David Downie's Case 104
36. Lord Cochrane's Case 106
37. Forbes r. Morse 108
38. William Barnard's Case 110
SUBTITLE D: EVIDENCE TO PROVE PLAN (DESIGN,
INTENTION)
39. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 120
40. Alexander ^L Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 121
41. The Case of the Dryad 122
42. The Chicago Anarchists' Case 123
43. Madame Lefarge's Case 125
SUBTITLE E: EVIDENCE TO PROVE INTENT
46. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 131
47. Hodges' and Probin's Case 135
48. Captain Kidd's Case 136
49. Bradford v. Boylston F. and M. Insurance Co 139
50. List Publishing Co. v. Keller 141
TITLK IV: EVIDEXCE TO PROVE THE DOING OF A HUM: AN ACT
53. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 143
54. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 143
SUBTITLE A : CONCOMITANT CIRCUMSTANCES
55. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 147
Topic 1. Time and Place
56. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence" 148
57. Jonalhan Bradford's Case 1,'32
58. William Shaw's Case l.'')3
59. Downing's Case 1.5.')
60. Looker's Case l.f)()
61. Hegina y. Cleary !.'")()
62. Alexander M. Burrill. "Circumstantial Evidence " l.')9
63. Abraham Thornton's Ca.se KiO
64. Frank Bobinson's Case 162
65. The Popish Plot 1G3
6(). Karl Franz' Case 103
67. John Hawkins' Case 1(33
CONTENTS IX
Page
68. Robert Hawkins' Case 163
69. Durrant's Case 163
70. Hillmon v. Insurance Co 164
71. Tourtelotte v. Brown 164
72. Anon 164
Topic 2. Physical and Mental Capacity, Tools, Clothingr, Etc.
73. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence" 164
74. The Sheffield Case 166
75. The Obstinate Juryman's Case 166
76. The Yarmouth Murder 167
77. The Case of the Pair of Gloves 168
78. William Jones' Case 170
79. Karl Franz' Case 173
80. Chicago & Alton R. Co. v. Crowder 173
81. Toledo, St. Louis & K. C. R. Co. i). Clark . 176
SUBTITLE B : PROSPECTANT CIRCUMSTANCES
83. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial P*roof " 178
Topic 1. Moral Character
84. James Sully, " The Human Mind " 178
85. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 181
86. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 182
87. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 184
88. United States v. Roudenbush 185
89. A. C. Plowden, " The Autobiography of a Police Magistrate " . . 186
90. A. G. W. Carter, " The Old Court House " 187
91. H. L. Adam, " The Story of Crime " 188.
92. Walter Sheridan's Case 189
93. The Postman's Case 192"
94. The Self-sacrificing Brother's Case 194
95. Eugene Aram's Case 195
96. Leopold Redpath's Case 199
97. Case of " B " 202
98. Case of " H " 205
Topic 2. Emotion (Motive)
101. James Sully, " The Human Mind " 210
102. G. P. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 213
103. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 215
104. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence" 218
105. H. L. Adam, " The Story of Crime " 220
106. Arthur C. Train, "Why do Men Km?" 221
107. George Wachs' Case 225
108. George Manners' Case 227
109. Thomas Patteson's Case 229
110. The Gloucester Child-Murder , . . 231
111. The Kent Case 232
112. Stevenson v. Stewart 238
113. Commonwealth v. Jeffries 240
114. Bradbury v. Dwight 242
115. Marey v. Barnes 244
X CONTENTS
Topic 3. Plan i Design, Intention)
Page
121. John H. Wigmore, " Principh's of Judicial Proof " 245
122. James Sully, " The Huiiiau Mind " 245
123. Richard (iould's C'ase 247
124. Jonathan Bradford's Case 250
125. The Great Oyer of Poisoning 250
12(5. Regina v. Cleary 251
127. William Habron's Case 251
128. Madeleine Smith's Case 254
1-21). O'Bannon v. Vigus 256
Topic 4. Habit (Usage, Custom)
13ft. James Sully, " The Human Mind " 256
131. Hans Ciross, " Criminal Psychology " 258
132. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 259
133. TwichcH's Case 259
134. Hethcrington r. Kemp 260
135. American E.xpress Co. r. Haggard 261
136. Denver & Rio Grande R. Co. v. Glasscott 262
SUBTITLE C : RETROSPECTANT CIRCUMSTANCES
138. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 265
Topic 1. Mechanical (Physical) Traces
139. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 265
140. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 269
141. The Baker's Case 271
142. The Case of the Sailmaker's Apprentice 272
143. John Jennings' Case 273
144. Courvoisier's Case 275
145. Starne Coal Co. v. Ryan 277
146. Moudy v. Snider 279
Topic 2. Mental Traces
147. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 279
148. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 283
149. The Escaped Convict's Case 286
150. MuUins' Case 287
151. The Uncle's Case 289
l.')2. George Rauschmaier's Case 289
l.')3. Robert Hawkins' Case 291
l.'>4. Donellan's Case 292
155. Robert Wood's Case 293
TITLE V: THE DATUM SOLVENDUM
156. Joim H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " ........ 295
1.57. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 297
1.5H. Hans (iross, " Criminal Inve.stigatioii " 300
1.59. Christopher Rupprecht's Case 302
100. John I'aul Korster's Case 304
161. Newton's Ca«e 306
162. Abraham Thornton's Case 309
CONTENTS :d
PART II: TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE
INTR on VCTION
Page
163. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 312
TITLE I: GENERIC HITMAX TRAITS AFFECTING THE TRUST-
WORTHINESS OF TESTIMONY
SUBTITLE A: RACE
164. Edward Westermarck, " Origin and Growth of Moral Ideas " . , . 314
165. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 317
\166. F. W. Colegrove, " Memory " 318
167. M. D. Chalmers, " Petty Perjury " 319
168. Minnie Moore- Willson, " The Seminoles of Florida " 320
169. Shelp V. United States 321
170. United States v. Lee Huen 322
171. The General Rucker 327
SUBTITLE B: AGE
172. Robert Louis Stevenson, " Virginibus Puerisque " 330
173. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 333
*174. G. Stanley Hall, " Children's Lies " 337
175. Amos C. Miller, " Examination of Witnesses " 340
176. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " . . . . 340
177. The Disbelieved Child's Case 340
178. Laurence Braddon's Trial 340
SUBTITLE C: SEX
179. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 340
180. Arthur C. Train, " The Prisoner at the Bar " 344
»> 181. Charles C. Moore, " A Treatise on Facts" 349
182. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " . . . 350
183. George Cant's Case 350
184. The Perreaus' Case 351
185. Thomas Hoag's Case 351
186. Mrs. Morris' Case 351
187. Chicago & Alton R. Co. v. Gibbons 351
188. Laurence Braddon's Trial 351
189. Hillmon v. Insurance Co , 351
190. Throckmorton v. Holt 351
SUBTITLE D: MENTAL DISEASE
191. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 351
• 192. Charles Mercier, " Sanity and Insanity " 354
193. Hans Gross, " Criminal Investigation " 357
194. Regina v. Hill 358
*195. Colonel King's Case . .- 360
SUBTITLE E : MORAL CHARACTER
196. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 365
197. Charles C. Moore, " A Treatise on Facts " 367
198. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory " 368
199. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 369
200. Day v. Day 369
201. Thomas Hardy's Case 371
202. G. L. Duprat, " The Lie " 377
xii CONTEXTS
SUBTITLE F: FEELING, EMOTION, BIAS
Page
203. G. F. Arnold, " PsyelioloKV applied to Legal Evidence" 382
204. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology" 383
205. Francis L. Wellinan, " The Art of Cross-Examination " 386
200. Ric-hard Whately, " Elements of Rhetoric" 387
207. Robert Hawkins' Case 387
208. Mary Blandys Trial 390
209. Charles C. Moore, "A Treatise on Facts" 392
210. John C. Reed, " Conduct of Lawsuits " 394
211. Amos C. Miller, " E.xamination of Witnesses " 395
212. Richard Harris, "Hints on Advocacy " 396
213. A. G. W. Carter, " The Old Court House " 398
214. N. W. Sibley, " Criminal Appeal and Evidence" 398
215. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 399
216. A. C. Plowden, "The Autobiography of a Police Magistrate". . . . 401
SUBTITLE G: EXPERIENCE
220. Josiah Royce, " Outlines of Psychology " 402
221. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology" and " Criminal Investigation" 403
"•222. Richard Whately, " Elements of Rhetoric " 411
223. Samuel S. Page, " Personal Injury Actions " 413
224. Richard Harris, "Hints on Advocacy " 413
225. Donellan's Case 419
226. Luetgert's Case 419
227. Hillmon v. Insurance Co 419
228. Thror-kmorton v. Holt 419
229. Frank S. Rice, " The Medical Expert as a Witness " 419
230. Albert S. Osborn, " Expert Testimony from the Standpoint of the
Witness" 421
231. Wm. L. Foster, " Expert Testimony " 423
TTTLK IT. Tin: J:li:.WE\TS of the TESTTMONIAT, PROCESS
ITS Err .ts A rrEcrisa the TuirsTwoKrurxEss of testi-
SUBTITLE A: PERCEPTION (OBSERVATION, KNOWLEDGE)
234. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 426
235. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 429
236. G. F. Arnold, " Psydioiogy applied to Legal Evidence" 455
237. Wm. C. Robinson, " P^)rensic Oratory " 459
238. Arthur C. Train, "The Prisoner at the Bar" 461
SUBTITLE B: MEMORY
239 Hans Gross, "Criminal Psychology " 402
240. G. F. Arnold, "Psychology applied to Legal Evidence" 467
241. F. W. C'olcjjrove, "Memcjry " 478
242. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory " 481
243. Arthur C. Train, "The Pri.soner at the Bar" 482
SUBTITLE C: NARRATION
244. John H. Wigmore, "Principles of Judicial Proof " 484
CONTENTS Xiii
Topic 1. Languag-e and Demeanor as a Means of Expression
Page
245. William James, " The Principles of Psychology " 485
246. Wm. D. Whitney, " Oriental and Linguistic Studies" 487
247. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory" 489
248. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 490
249. Arthur C. Train, " The Prisoner at the Bar" 491
• 250. G. L. Duprat, " The Lie " 493
251. A. C. Plowden, "Autobiography of a Police Magistrate" .... 496
252. Amos C. Miller, " Examination of Witnesses " 497
Topic 2. Narration as affected by Interrogation and Suggestion
253. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 497
254. Bardell v. Pickwick 502
255. John C. Reed, "Conduct of Lawsuits" 503
256. Amos C. Miller, " The Examination of Witnesses " 505
257. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " ... 506
"258. James Ram, " Facts as Subjects of Inquiry by a Jury " 508
259. Charles C. Moore, " A Treatise on Facts " 510
260. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 511
261. Francis L. Wellman, " Day in Court " 511
262. Pat Hogan's Case 512
263. John H. Wigmore, "Principles of Judicial Proof " 512
264. Charles C. Moore, "A Treatise on Facts " 514
265. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 515
266. Brown v. Bramble 515
267. Charles C. Moore, "A Treatise on Facts" 516
268. John C. Reed, " Conduct of Lawsuits " 518
269. Francis L. Wellman, " Day in Court " 518
270. Arthur C. Train, "The Prisoner at the Bar" 519
271. The Hospital Case 520
272. Puyenbroeck's Case 521
273. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 524
Topic 3. Narration as affected by Typical Temperaments
275. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory " 526
276. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 530
Topic 4. Confessions of Guilt
277. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 537
278. Daniel Webster, in Commonwealth v. Knapp 539
279. Honore de Balzac, " Lucien de Rubempre " 541
280. Allan Pinkerton, " Bank Robbers and Detectives " 547
281. International Association of Chiefs of Police, " Proceedings " . . . 550
282. Arthur C. Train, " Courts, Criminals, and the Camorra" .... 554
283. W. M. Best, " A Treatise on Evidence " 555
284. The Hermione Case 558
285. The Gloucester Child-m_urder 559
286. The Case of the Boorns 559
287. Mrs. Morris' Case ... - 564
288. Hugo Miinsterberg, " On the Witness Stand " 568
289. John H. Wigmore, " The Psychology of Testimony " 571
TITLE III. THE INTEItPRETATIOJyr OF SPECIFIC TESTIMONY
TO ESTABLISH THE EXTENT ANI> SOTTRCES OF ERROR
SUBTITLE A: EXTENT OP LATENT ERROR IN THE NORMAL
TESTIMONIAL PROCESS
290. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " .... 575
291. Kansas University Experiment 581
xiv CONTENTS
Pack
292. Arno Gunther's Experiment 583
293. Northwestern University Experiments 585
294. John H. Wigmore, "The Psychology of Testimony " 591
SUBTITLE B: EXTENT AND SOURCES OF ERROR AS INDI-
CATED BY SOME COMMON TESTIMONIAL INCIDENTS
Topic 1. Defective Basis of Perception
296. Elizabeth Canning's Trial 592
297. Heath's Trial 593
298. Brook's Case 593
299. Cal Armstrong's Case 594
300. The Beer-Wagon Case 594
301. The Bottomry Bond Case 595
302. The Poisoned Coffee Case 596
303. Lady Ivy's Trial 597
«304. Captain Baillie's Trial 598
305. James Byrne's Trial 602
306. Hans Gross, " Criminal Investigation " 602
Topic 2. Incomplete Recollection
308. Langhorn's Trial 602
309. Queen Caroline's Trial 603
310. The Doctor's Case 604
311. Lord George Gordon's Trial 604
312. William Winterbotham's Trial 610
Topic 3. Self-contradictory Statements
« 314. Col. Turner's Trial 617
315. Queen Caroline's Trial 617
316. M'Garahan v. Maguire 617
317. Parnell's Commission's Proceedings 618
318. Xetherolift's Case 621
319. Christopher Ruppreeht's Case 621
320. Francis Willis' Trial 623
321. Loucks I'. Paden 628
322. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 631
323. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 632
Topic 4. Contradictory Testimony by Witnesses called on the
Same Side
324. The History of Susanna 634
325. Kerne's Trial 634
326. The Attesting Witnesses' Case 635
327. Frank Robinson's Case 635
32S. Laun-nce Braddon's Trial 637
329. I>jrd Chancanz' Case 840
389. Hillnion v. Insurance Co 856
390. Throckmorton t-. Holt 897
391. Laurence Braddon's Trial 990
392. Earl of Thanet's Trial 1018
393. Knapp's Trial 1080
APPENDIX
List of Trials Useful for Study 1169
List of Authors of Extracts Reprinted 1173
List of Cases Reprinted 1175
Index of Topics 1177
THE PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF
AS CONTAINED IN LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY, AND GENERAL EXPERIENCE
AND ILLUSTRATED IN JUDICIAL TRIALS
INTRODUCTION
This book aspires to offer, though in tentative form only, a novum
organum for the study of Judicial Evidence.
The study of the principles of Evidence, for a lawyer, falls into two
distinct parts. One is Proof in the general sense, — the part concerned
with the ratiocinative process of contentious persuasion, — mind to
mind, counsel to juror, each partisan seeking to move the mind of the
tribunal. The other part is Admissibility, — the procedural rules
devised by the law, and based on litigious experience and tradition, to
guard the tribunal (particularly the jury) against erroneous persuasion.
Hitherto, the latter has loomed largest in our formal studies, — has, in
fact, monopolized them ; while the former, virtually ignored, has been
left to the chances of later acquisition, casual and empiric, in the course
of practice. Here we have been wrong ; and in two ways :
For one thing, there is, and there must be, a probative science —
the principles of proof — independent of the artificial rules of procedure ;
hence, it can be and should be studied. This science, to be sure, may
as yet be imperfectly formulated or even incapable of formulation.
But all the more need is there to begin in earnest to investigate and
develop it. Furthermore, this process of Proof is the more important
of the two, — indeed, is the ultniiate purpose in every judicial investi-
gation. The procedural rules for iVdmissibility are merely a preliminary
aid to the main activity, viz. the persuasion of the tribunal's mind to
a correct conclusion by safe materials. This main process is that for
which the jury are there, and on which the counsel's duty is focused.
Vital as it is, its principles surely demand study.
And, for another thing, the judicial rules of Admissibility are
destined to lessen in relative importance during the next generation or
later. Proof will assume the important place ; and we must therefore
prepare ourselves for this shifting of emphasis. We must seek to
acquire a scientific understanding of the principles of what may be
called " natural " proof, — the hitherto neglected process. If we do not
do this, history will repeat itself, and we shall find ourselves in the
2 IXTHODllTIOX
present plight of Continoutal Europe. There, in the early ISOOs the
ancient worn-out numerical system of " legal proof " was abolished by
fiat, and the so-called "free proof" — namely, no system at all — was
substituted. For centuries, lawyers and judges had evidenced and
proved by the artificial numerical system ; they had no training in any
other, — no understanding of the living process of belief ; in conse-
quence, when " legal proof " was abolished, they were unready, and
juilicial trials have been carried on for a century past by uncompre-
hended, unguided, and therefore unsafe mental processes. Only in
recent times, under the influence of modern science, are they beginning
to develop a science of proof.
Such will be our own fate, when the time comes, if yve do not lay
foundations to prepare for the new stage of procedure.
The present work seems to be the first attempt in English, since
Benthani, to call attention to the principles of judicial Proof (distin-
guished from Admissibility) as a whole and as a system.' It is therefore
tentative. The chief service it aims to fulfill is to emphasize the
subject as a science, and to stimulate its professional study.
The materials exist in abundance. But they need systematic collec-
tion and analysis. The illustrative materials here offered are culled
from a wide range ; though the search for them has merely touched the
surface. A longer search would have found apter materials in many
places, especially from the annals of civil trials. Most of the selections
are from criminal cases ; first, because they usually show the specific
inference in more striking shape and shorter compass, and next, because
they are the more profuse in the records. But it should not be for-
gotten that while blood and poison and pistol waddings are usually
conceived as types of Circumstantial Evidence, yet the short and simple
annals of civil cases are equally permeated with it, in less sensational form.
Now a few words about the use of the book.
1. It is intended mainly for law-school work. But it may profitably
be used (we hope) for the self-training of the niaturer practitioner.
2. Though most of the topics are introduced or followed (as befits
a novel subject) by a brief expository passage, to focus the reader on
the possibilities of the topic, yet the main part of the material may
and must be used inductively. Some of it merely illustrates; but most
of it calls for self-application of the process of analysis and inference.
' Mr. Burrill's masterly work, two generations ago, eovered only a part of the. field,
yy'
UWART
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
RIVERSIDE
I? id
THE PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF
THE
PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF
AS GIVEN BY
LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY, AND GENERAL EXPERIENCE
And Illustrated In
JUDICIAL TRIALS
COMPILED BY
JOHN HENRY WIGMORE
/.Y
PROFESSOR OF THE LAW OF EVIDENCE IN NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
AUTHOR OF "a SYSTEM OF EVIDENCE IN TRIALS AT COMMON
LAW," "A POCKET CODE OF EVIDENCE," ETC.
BOSTON
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
1913
Copyright, 1913,
By John H. Wkjmore.
All rights reserved
Set up and eUctrotypcd by J. S. Gushing Co., Norwood, Mass. , U.S.A.
HANS GROSS
PROFESSOR OF CRIMINAL LAW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ
WHO HAS DONE MORE
THAN" ANY OTHER MAN IN MODERN TIMES
TO ENCOURAGE THE APPLICATION OP SCIENCE TO JUDICIAIi PROOF
THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED
IN TOKEN OF
PERSONAL GRATITUDE
AND
PROFESSIONAL ADMIRATION"
CONTENTS
THE PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF AS GIVEN
BY LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY, AND GENERAL EXPE-
RIENCE, AND ILLUSTRATED BY JUDICIAL TRIALS
Page
Introduction 1
INTRODUCTORY: GENERAL THEORY OF PROOF
1. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 5
2. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 15
PART I: CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE
3. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 30
TITLE I: JBVIDENCE TO PROVE AX EVEXT, CONDITION, QITAL-
ITY, CAUSE, OR EFFECT OF EXTERNAL INANIMATE NATURE
4. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 31
5. Robert Salmon's Case 44
6. Bradford v. Insurance Co 45
7. Eidt V. Cutter 45
8. East St. Louis v. Wiggins Ferry Co 47
9. Knowles v. State 47
10. Golden Reward Mining Co. v. Buxton Mining Co 48
11. Chicago C. & St. Louis R. Co. v. Dixon 52
12. Food Adulteration Tests 55
13. Poison Tests 56
TITLE II: EVIDENCE TO PROVE IDENTITY
14. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 63
15. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence" 65
16. The Cranberry Cask Case 72
17. Downie and Milnes' Case 72
18. The Chicago Anarchists' Case 72
19. Webber's Case 73
20. The Tichborne Case 73
21. Joseph Lesurques' Case 77
22. Thomas Hoag's Case 77
23. Karl Franz' Case ' 78
24. The Webster- Parkman Case 78
25. Finger-print Identification 79
26. People v. Jennings 83
TITLE III: EVIDENCE TO PROVE A HUMAN TRAIT, QUALITY,
OR CONDITION
27. John H. Wigmore, "Principles of Judicial Proof " 89
SUBTITLE A: EVIDENCE TO PROVE MORAL CHARACTER
28. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 91
vii
^^ii CONTENTS
SUBTITLE B : EVIDENCE TO PROVE MOTIVE
Page
29. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 94
SUBTITLE C: EVIDENCE TO PROVE KNOWLEDGE, BELIEF.
OR CONSCIOUSNESS
30. John II. Wigmore, '* Principles of Judicial Proof " 96
31. Kugene Aram's Case 98
32. The Perrcaus' Case 99
33. Lord Chancellor Macclesfield's Case 99
34. Mary Blandy's Case 101
35. David Downie's Case 104
36. Lord Cochrane's Case 106
37. Forbes r. Morse 108
38. William Barnard's Case 110
SUBTITLE D: EVIDENCE TO PROVE PLAN (DESIGN,
INTENTION)
39. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 120
40. Alexander ^L Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 121
41. The Case of the Dryad 122
42. The Chicago Anarchists' Case 123
43. Madame Lefarge's Case 125
SUBTITLE E: EVIDENCE TO PROVE INTENT
46. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 131
47. Hodges' and Probin's Case 135
48. Captain Kidd's Case 136
49. Bradford v. Boylston F. and M. Insurance Co 139
50. List Publishing Co. v. Keller 141
TITLK IV: EVIDEXCE TO PROVE THE DOING OF A HUM: AN ACT
53. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 143
54. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 143
SUBTITLE A : CONCOMITANT CIRCUMSTANCES
55. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 147
Topic 1. Time and Place
56. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence" 148
57. Jonalhan Bradford's Case 1,'32
58. William Shaw's Case l.'')3
59. Downing's Case 1.5.')
60. Looker's Case l.f)()
61. Hegina y. Cleary !.'")()
62. Alexander M. Burrill. "Circumstantial Evidence " l.')9
63. Abraham Thornton's Ca.se KiO
64. Frank Bobinson's Case 162
65. The Popish Plot 1G3
6(). Karl Franz' Case 103
67. John Hawkins' Case 1(33
CONTENTS IX
Page
68. Robert Hawkins' Case 163
69. Durrant's Case 163
70. Hillmon v. Insurance Co 164
71. Tourtelotte v. Brown 164
72. Anon 164
Topic 2. Physical and Mental Capacity, Tools, Clothingr, Etc.
73. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence" 164
74. The Sheffield Case 166
75. The Obstinate Juryman's Case 166
76. The Yarmouth Murder 167
77. The Case of the Pair of Gloves 168
78. William Jones' Case 170
79. Karl Franz' Case 173
80. Chicago & Alton R. Co. v. Crowder 173
81. Toledo, St. Louis & K. C. R. Co. i). Clark . 176
SUBTITLE B : PROSPECTANT CIRCUMSTANCES
83. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial P*roof " 178
Topic 1. Moral Character
84. James Sully, " The Human Mind " 178
85. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 181
86. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 182
87. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 184
88. United States v. Roudenbush 185
89. A. C. Plowden, " The Autobiography of a Police Magistrate " . . 186
90. A. G. W. Carter, " The Old Court House " 187
91. H. L. Adam, " The Story of Crime " 188.
92. Walter Sheridan's Case 189
93. The Postman's Case 192"
94. The Self-sacrificing Brother's Case 194
95. Eugene Aram's Case 195
96. Leopold Redpath's Case 199
97. Case of " B " 202
98. Case of " H " 205
Topic 2. Emotion (Motive)
101. James Sully, " The Human Mind " 210
102. G. P. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 213
103. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 215
104. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence" 218
105. H. L. Adam, " The Story of Crime " 220
106. Arthur C. Train, "Why do Men Km?" 221
107. George Wachs' Case 225
108. George Manners' Case 227
109. Thomas Patteson's Case 229
110. The Gloucester Child-Murder , . . 231
111. The Kent Case 232
112. Stevenson v. Stewart 238
113. Commonwealth v. Jeffries 240
114. Bradbury v. Dwight 242
115. Marey v. Barnes 244
X CONTENTS
Topic 3. Plan i Design, Intention)
Page
121. John H. Wigmore, " Principh's of Judicial Proof " 245
122. James Sully, " The Huiiiau Mind " 245
123. Richard (iould's C'ase 247
124. Jonathan Bradford's Case 250
125. The Great Oyer of Poisoning 250
12(5. Regina v. Cleary 251
127. William Habron's Case 251
128. Madeleine Smith's Case 254
1-21). O'Bannon v. Vigus 256
Topic 4. Habit (Usage, Custom)
13ft. James Sully, " The Human Mind " 256
131. Hans Ciross, " Criminal Psychology " 258
132. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 259
133. TwichcH's Case 259
134. Hethcrington r. Kemp 260
135. American E.xpress Co. r. Haggard 261
136. Denver & Rio Grande R. Co. v. Glasscott 262
SUBTITLE C : RETROSPECTANT CIRCUMSTANCES
138. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 265
Topic 1. Mechanical (Physical) Traces
139. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 265
140. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 269
141. The Baker's Case 271
142. The Case of the Sailmaker's Apprentice 272
143. John Jennings' Case 273
144. Courvoisier's Case 275
145. Starne Coal Co. v. Ryan 277
146. Moudy v. Snider 279
Topic 2. Mental Traces
147. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 279
148. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 283
149. The Escaped Convict's Case 286
150. MuUins' Case 287
151. The Uncle's Case 289
l.')2. George Rauschmaier's Case 289
l.')3. Robert Hawkins' Case 291
l.'>4. Donellan's Case 292
155. Robert Wood's Case 293
TITLE V: THE DATUM SOLVENDUM
156. Joim H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " ........ 295
1.57. Alexander M. Burrill, " Circumstantial Evidence " 297
1.5H. Hans (iross, " Criminal Inve.stigatioii " 300
1.59. Christopher Rupprecht's Case 302
100. John I'aul Korster's Case 304
161. Newton's Ca«e 306
162. Abraham Thornton's Case 309
CONTENTS :d
PART II: TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE
INTR on VCTION
Page
163. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 312
TITLE I: GENERIC HITMAX TRAITS AFFECTING THE TRUST-
WORTHINESS OF TESTIMONY
SUBTITLE A: RACE
164. Edward Westermarck, " Origin and Growth of Moral Ideas " . , . 314
165. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 317
\166. F. W. Colegrove, " Memory " 318
167. M. D. Chalmers, " Petty Perjury " 319
168. Minnie Moore- Willson, " The Seminoles of Florida " 320
169. Shelp V. United States 321
170. United States v. Lee Huen 322
171. The General Rucker 327
SUBTITLE B: AGE
172. Robert Louis Stevenson, " Virginibus Puerisque " 330
173. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 333
*174. G. Stanley Hall, " Children's Lies " 337
175. Amos C. Miller, " Examination of Witnesses " 340
176. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " . . . . 340
177. The Disbelieved Child's Case 340
178. Laurence Braddon's Trial 340
SUBTITLE C: SEX
179. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 340
180. Arthur C. Train, " The Prisoner at the Bar " 344
»> 181. Charles C. Moore, " A Treatise on Facts" 349
182. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " . . . 350
183. George Cant's Case 350
184. The Perreaus' Case 351
185. Thomas Hoag's Case 351
186. Mrs. Morris' Case 351
187. Chicago & Alton R. Co. v. Gibbons 351
188. Laurence Braddon's Trial 351
189. Hillmon v. Insurance Co , 351
190. Throckmorton v. Holt 351
SUBTITLE D: MENTAL DISEASE
191. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 351
• 192. Charles Mercier, " Sanity and Insanity " 354
193. Hans Gross, " Criminal Investigation " 357
194. Regina v. Hill 358
*195. Colonel King's Case . .- 360
SUBTITLE E : MORAL CHARACTER
196. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 365
197. Charles C. Moore, " A Treatise on Facts " 367
198. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory " 368
199. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 369
200. Day v. Day 369
201. Thomas Hardy's Case 371
202. G. L. Duprat, " The Lie " 377
xii CONTEXTS
SUBTITLE F: FEELING, EMOTION, BIAS
Page
203. G. F. Arnold, " PsyelioloKV applied to Legal Evidence" 382
204. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology" 383
205. Francis L. Wellinan, " The Art of Cross-Examination " 386
200. Ric-hard Whately, " Elements of Rhetoric" 387
207. Robert Hawkins' Case 387
208. Mary Blandys Trial 390
209. Charles C. Moore, "A Treatise on Facts" 392
210. John C. Reed, " Conduct of Lawsuits " 394
211. Amos C. Miller, " E.xamination of Witnesses " 395
212. Richard Harris, "Hints on Advocacy " 396
213. A. G. W. Carter, " The Old Court House " 398
214. N. W. Sibley, " Criminal Appeal and Evidence" 398
215. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 399
216. A. C. Plowden, "The Autobiography of a Police Magistrate". . . . 401
SUBTITLE G: EXPERIENCE
220. Josiah Royce, " Outlines of Psychology " 402
221. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology" and " Criminal Investigation" 403
"•222. Richard Whately, " Elements of Rhetoric " 411
223. Samuel S. Page, " Personal Injury Actions " 413
224. Richard Harris, "Hints on Advocacy " 413
225. Donellan's Case 419
226. Luetgert's Case 419
227. Hillmon v. Insurance Co 419
228. Thror-kmorton v. Holt 419
229. Frank S. Rice, " The Medical Expert as a Witness " 419
230. Albert S. Osborn, " Expert Testimony from the Standpoint of the
Witness" 421
231. Wm. L. Foster, " Expert Testimony " 423
TTTLK IT. Tin: J:li:.WE\TS of the TESTTMONIAT, PROCESS
ITS Err .ts A rrEcrisa the TuirsTwoKrurxEss of testi-
SUBTITLE A: PERCEPTION (OBSERVATION, KNOWLEDGE)
234. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 426
235. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 429
236. G. F. Arnold, " Psydioiogy applied to Legal Evidence" 455
237. Wm. C. Robinson, " P^)rensic Oratory " 459
238. Arthur C. Train, "The Prisoner at the Bar" 461
SUBTITLE B: MEMORY
239 Hans Gross, "Criminal Psychology " 402
240. G. F. Arnold, "Psychology applied to Legal Evidence" 467
241. F. W. C'olcjjrove, "Memcjry " 478
242. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory " 481
243. Arthur C. Train, "The Pri.soner at the Bar" 482
SUBTITLE C: NARRATION
244. John H. Wigmore, "Principles of Judicial Proof " 484
CONTENTS Xiii
Topic 1. Languag-e and Demeanor as a Means of Expression
Page
245. William James, " The Principles of Psychology " 485
246. Wm. D. Whitney, " Oriental and Linguistic Studies" 487
247. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory" 489
248. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 490
249. Arthur C. Train, " The Prisoner at the Bar" 491
• 250. G. L. Duprat, " The Lie " 493
251. A. C. Plowden, "Autobiography of a Police Magistrate" .... 496
252. Amos C. Miller, " Examination of Witnesses " 497
Topic 2. Narration as affected by Interrogation and Suggestion
253. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 497
254. Bardell v. Pickwick 502
255. John C. Reed, "Conduct of Lawsuits" 503
256. Amos C. Miller, " The Examination of Witnesses " 505
257. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " ... 506
"258. James Ram, " Facts as Subjects of Inquiry by a Jury " 508
259. Charles C. Moore, " A Treatise on Facts " 510
260. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 511
261. Francis L. Wellman, " Day in Court " 511
262. Pat Hogan's Case 512
263. John H. Wigmore, "Principles of Judicial Proof " 512
264. Charles C. Moore, "A Treatise on Facts " 514
265. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 515
266. Brown v. Bramble 515
267. Charles C. Moore, "A Treatise on Facts" 516
268. John C. Reed, " Conduct of Lawsuits " 518
269. Francis L. Wellman, " Day in Court " 518
270. Arthur C. Train, "The Prisoner at the Bar" 519
271. The Hospital Case 520
272. Puyenbroeck's Case 521
273. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 524
Topic 3. Narration as affected by Typical Temperaments
275. Wm. C. Robinson, " Forensic Oratory " 526
276. Richard Harris, " Hints on Advocacy " 530
Topic 4. Confessions of Guilt
277. Hans Gross, " Criminal Psychology " 537
278. Daniel Webster, in Commonwealth v. Knapp 539
279. Honore de Balzac, " Lucien de Rubempre " 541
280. Allan Pinkerton, " Bank Robbers and Detectives " 547
281. International Association of Chiefs of Police, " Proceedings " . . . 550
282. Arthur C. Train, " Courts, Criminals, and the Camorra" .... 554
283. W. M. Best, " A Treatise on Evidence " 555
284. The Hermione Case 558
285. The Gloucester Child-m_urder 559
286. The Case of the Boorns 559
287. Mrs. Morris' Case ... - 564
288. Hugo Miinsterberg, " On the Witness Stand " 568
289. John H. Wigmore, " The Psychology of Testimony " 571
TITLE III. THE INTEItPRETATIOJyr OF SPECIFIC TESTIMONY
TO ESTABLISH THE EXTENT ANI> SOTTRCES OF ERROR
SUBTITLE A: EXTENT OP LATENT ERROR IN THE NORMAL
TESTIMONIAL PROCESS
290. Guy M. Whipple, " Manual of Mental and Physical Tests " .... 575
291. Kansas University Experiment 581
xiv CONTENTS
Pack
292. Arno Gunther's Experiment 583
293. Northwestern University Experiments 585
294. John H. Wigmore, "The Psychology of Testimony " 591
SUBTITLE B: EXTENT AND SOURCES OF ERROR AS INDI-
CATED BY SOME COMMON TESTIMONIAL INCIDENTS
Topic 1. Defective Basis of Perception
296. Elizabeth Canning's Trial 592
297. Heath's Trial 593
298. Brook's Case 593
299. Cal Armstrong's Case 594
300. The Beer-Wagon Case 594
301. The Bottomry Bond Case 595
302. The Poisoned Coffee Case 596
303. Lady Ivy's Trial 597
«304. Captain Baillie's Trial 598
305. James Byrne's Trial 602
306. Hans Gross, " Criminal Investigation " 602
Topic 2. Incomplete Recollection
308. Langhorn's Trial 602
309. Queen Caroline's Trial 603
310. The Doctor's Case 604
311. Lord George Gordon's Trial 604
312. William Winterbotham's Trial 610
Topic 3. Self-contradictory Statements
« 314. Col. Turner's Trial 617
315. Queen Caroline's Trial 617
316. M'Garahan v. Maguire 617
317. Parnell's Commission's Proceedings 618
318. Xetherolift's Case 621
319. Christopher Ruppreeht's Case 621
320. Francis Willis' Trial 623
321. Loucks I'. Paden 628
322. G. F. Arnold, " Psychology applied to Legal Evidence " 631
323. John H. Wigmore, " Principles of Judicial Proof " 632
Topic 4. Contradictory Testimony by Witnesses called on the
Same Side
324. The History of Susanna 634
325. Kerne's Trial 634
326. The Attesting Witnesses' Case 635
327. Frank Robinson's Case 635
32S. Laun-nce Braddon's Trial 637
329. I>jrd Chancanz' Case 840
389. Hillnion v. Insurance Co 856
390. Throckmorton t-. Holt 897
391. Laurence Braddon's Trial 990
392. Earl of Thanet's Trial 1018
393. Knapp's Trial 1080
APPENDIX
List of Trials Useful for Study 1169
List of Authors of Extracts Reprinted 1173
List of Cases Reprinted 1175
Index of Topics 1177
THE PRINCIPLES OF JUDICIAL PROOF
AS CONTAINED IN LOGIC, PSYCHOLOGY, AND GENERAL EXPERIENCE
AND ILLUSTRATED IN JUDICIAL TRIALS
INTRODUCTION
This book aspires to offer, though in tentative form only, a novum
organum for the study of Judicial Evidence.
The study of the principles of Evidence, for a lawyer, falls into two
distinct parts. One is Proof in the general sense, — the part concerned
with the ratiocinative process of contentious persuasion, — mind to
mind, counsel to juror, each partisan seeking to move the mind of the
tribunal. The other part is Admissibility, — the procedural rules
devised by the law, and based on litigious experience and tradition, to
guard the tribunal (particularly the jury) against erroneous persuasion.
Hitherto, the latter has loomed largest in our formal studies, — has, in
fact, monopolized them ; while the former, virtually ignored, has been
left to the chances of later acquisition, casual and empiric, in the course
of practice. Here we have been wrong ; and in two ways :
For one thing, there is, and there must be, a probative science —
the principles of proof — independent of the artificial rules of procedure ;
hence, it can be and should be studied. This science, to be sure, may
as yet be imperfectly formulated or even incapable of formulation.
But all the more need is there to begin in earnest to investigate and
develop it. Furthermore, this process of Proof is the more important
of the two, — indeed, is the ultniiate purpose in every judicial investi-
gation. The procedural rules for iVdmissibility are merely a preliminary
aid to the main activity, viz. the persuasion of the tribunal's mind to
a correct conclusion by safe materials. This main process is that for
which the jury are there, and on which the counsel's duty is focused.
Vital as it is, its principles surely demand study.
And, for another thing, the judicial rules of Admissibility are
destined to lessen in relative importance during the next generation or
later. Proof will assume the important place ; and we must therefore
prepare ourselves for this shifting of emphasis. We must seek to
acquire a scientific understanding of the principles of what may be
called " natural " proof, — the hitherto neglected process. If we do not
do this, history will repeat itself, and we shall find ourselves in the
2 IXTHODllTIOX
present plight of Continoutal Europe. There, in the early ISOOs the
ancient worn-out numerical system of " legal proof " was abolished by
fiat, and the so-called "free proof" — namely, no system at all — was
substituted. For centuries, lawyers and judges had evidenced and
proved by the artificial numerical system ; they had no training in any
other, — no understanding of the living process of belief ; in conse-
quence, when " legal proof " was abolished, they were unready, and
juilicial trials have been carried on for a century past by uncompre-
hended, unguided, and therefore unsafe mental processes. Only in
recent times, under the influence of modern science, are they beginning
to develop a science of proof.
Such will be our own fate, when the time comes, if yve do not lay
foundations to prepare for the new stage of procedure.
The present work seems to be the first attempt in English, since
Benthani, to call attention to the principles of judicial Proof (distin-
guished from Admissibility) as a whole and as a system.' It is therefore
tentative. The chief service it aims to fulfill is to emphasize the
subject as a science, and to stimulate its professional study.
The materials exist in abundance. But they need systematic collec-
tion and analysis. The illustrative materials here offered are culled
from a wide range ; though the search for them has merely touched the
surface. A longer search would have found apter materials in many
places, especially from the annals of civil trials. Most of the selections
are from criminal cases ; first, because they usually show the specific
inference in more striking shape and shorter compass, and next, because
they are the more profuse in the records. But it should not be for-
gotten that while blood and poison and pistol waddings are usually
conceived as types of Circumstantial Evidence, yet the short and simple
annals of civil cases are equally permeated with it, in less sensational form.
Now a few words about the use of the book.
1. It is intended mainly for law-school work. But it may profitably
be used (we hope) for the self-training of the niaturer practitioner.
2. Though most of the topics are introduced or followed (as befits
a novel subject) by a brief expository passage, to focus the reader on
the possibilities of the topic, yet the main part of the material may
and must be used inductively. Some of it merely illustrates; but most
of it calls for self-application of the process of analysis and inference.
' Mr. Burrill's masterly work, two generations ago, eovered only a part of the. field,
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