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THE LAW OF TORTS
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
JURISPRUDENCE
OR
THE THEORY OF THE LAW
THIRD EDITION
LONDON
STEVENS AND HAYNES
1910
THE LAW OF TORTS
A TREATISE ON THE
ENCLISH LAW OF LIABILITY
FOR CIVIL INJURIES
BY
JOHN W. S ALMOND
.M.A., l,r,.IJ. ; FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COM.F.CiE, LONDON
SOLICITOR-GENEKAL OF NEW ZEALAND
THIRD EDITION
LONDON
STEVENS AND HAYNES
BELL YARD, TEMPLE BAR
1912
./IjjJ^
UAT.T.ANTYNIO .% COMPANY LTD
Tavistock Stuf.kt Covknt (Iauden
l/ONDON
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
Since the >piiblication of the second edition of this book in
1910 the most important development of the law of torts is
that which is due to the passing of the Maritime Conventions
Act, 1911, and in this edition the section dealing with liability
for collisions at sea has been rewritten accordingly. I have
also rewritten the section relating to the liability of bodies
corporate, and have recanted the opinion formerly expressed
by me, in good company, that there is no such liability for
torts committed in the course of any business or undertaking
which is ultra vires of the corporation. On this point I have
accepted the American decisions to the contrary as authorita-
tive. Most of the longer notes in earlier editions have now
been incorporated in the text. In other respects this edition
differs little from the second. In a former preface I expressed
the hope that this book would be of use both to lawyers and
to students of law. As to students, I trust that the con-
current publication by me of an abridgment for their especial
needs will not be regarded as an admission that the larger
work is in any way unsuitable for use by them. As to lawyers,
the book is admittedly a compendium of legal principles
rather than a comprehensive digest of judicial decisions, but,
in view of the formidable growth of authority in modern law,
a book may be none the less useful on that account. I have
to thank Mr. A. W. Chaster, LL.B,, Barrister-at-Law, for
his care in attending to the passage of this edition through
the press and for the preparation of the Table of Cases and
Index.
J. W. S.
Wellington, New Zealand,
March 1912
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
I HAVE endeavoured in this book to set forth the principles
of the law of torts with as much precision, coherence, and
system as the subject admits of, and with as much detailed
consideration as is necessary to make the work one of practical
utility. No book is justified by the good intent of its author ;
but I hope that the present work will be found of use to
lawyers and to students of law as a general exposition, in
moderate compass, of an extensive and in some respects
difficult and imperfectly developed department of our legal
system.
J. W. S.
Wellington, New Zealand,
August 5, 1907
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LIABILITY
SECTION PAGE
1. The Nature of a Tort 1
2. The General Conditions of LiabiHtj'- 7
3. Absolute Liability 14
4. Wrongful Intent and Malice 17
5. Negligence 21
G. Tlie Standard of Care 26
7. The Proof of Negligence 28
8. Res ipsa loquitur 32
9. Contributory Negligence 34
10. The Rule in Davies v. Mann 38
1 1 . Contributory Negligence of Plaintiff's Servants and Agents 43
12. The Burden of Proof of Contributory Negligence 44
13. Contributory Negligence and Collisions at Sea 46
14. Volenti non Jit injuria 49
CHAPTER II
PARTIES
15. The Crown 54
16. Public OfTicials 55
17. Foreign Sovereigns and Ambassadors 56
18. Bodies Corporate 57
19. Trade Unions 61
20. Minors 62
21. Lunatics 65
22. Married Women 66
23. Executors and Administrators 69
24. Joint Wrongdoers 74
25. Contribution between Wrongdoers 78
25a. Persons jointly Injured 80
26. Principal and Agent 81
27. Partners 84
28. Masters and Servants 84
29. The Course of Employment 89
30. Excess of a Servant's Authority 91
X CONTENTS
SECTION PAGK
31. Acts done by a Servant on his own Behalf 92
32. The Rule of Common Employment 97
33. The Employers' Liabihty Act, 1880 102
34. The Workmen's Compensation Act, 1906 105
CHAPTER III
JUDICIAL REMEDIES
35. Classes of Remedies for Torts 106
36. Damages 107
37. Remoteness of Damage 109
38. Successive Actions on the same Facts 119
39. Injunctions 128
40. The Limitation of Actions 135
41. Special Periods of Limitation 138
42. Felonious Torts 140
43. Assignment of Rights of Action for Torts 142
44. The Waiver of Torts 144
45. Foreign Torts 147
CHAPTER IV
EXTRAJUDICIAL REMEDIES
46. Self-Defcnce 150
47. Prevention of Trespass 161
48. Re-entry on Land 153
49. Defence and Recaption of Cliattels 155
50. Abatement of Nuisances 156
51. Distress Damas-e Feasant 159
CHAPTER V
TRESPASS TO LAND
52. Old Forms of Action. Trespass and Case 163
53. The Nature of Trespass to Land 166
54. The Title of the Plaintiff 172
65. I'respass ab initio 175
5(5. The Measure of Damages in Trespass 178
CHAPTER VI
DISPOSSESSION OP LAND
57. The Aclioii of Ejectment 182
58. The Aoti(jn for Mesne Profits 184
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER Yll
NUISANCE
SECTION PAGE
59. The Nature of Nuisance 189
60. Damage caused by Nuisance 194-
61. IneflFectual Defences 198
62. The Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher 200
63. First Exception : Things Naturally on Land 205
64. Second Exception : Consent of the Plaintiff 208
65. Third Exception : The Act of a Stranger 209
66. Fourth Exception : The Act of God 211
67. Nuisances in a Highway 215
68. The Legalisation of Nuisances by Prescription 217
69. The Legalisation of Nuisances by Statute 218
70. Liability for Fire " 222
71. The Incidence of Liability for Nuisances 226
72. Liability of a Landlord " 229
CHAPTER VIII
INJURIES TO SERVITUDES
73. Kinds of Servitudes 234
74. Easements 235
75. Profits 241
76. Equitable Servitudes : Licenses 242
77. The Rule in Wood v. Leadbitter 246
78. Equitable Servitudes : Restrictive Contracts 248
CHAPTER IX
INJURIES TO SERVITUDES {conLiuatd)
79. The Right of Support 250
80. Disturbance of tlie Right of Support 252
81. The Right to Light 258
82. The Right to Air 205
83. Rights to Water 266
84. Wrongful Abstraction of Water 266
85. Abstraction for Non-riparian Uses "269
86. Abstraction for Riparian Uses 272
87. Abstraction of Underground Water 276
88. The Pollution of Water 278
89. Obstruction of a Stream 279
90. Rights of Way 281
91. Disturbance of the Right of Access to a Highway 283
92. Nuisance to a Highway 284
93. Absolute Liability for Danger to Highway 287
Xll
SEOXION
CONTENTS
94. Liability for the Non-repair of Roads
95. Wrongful Damage
96. Injuries to Reversionary Interests
FAOK
291
294
295
CHAPTER X
CONVERSION AND OTHER INJURIES TO CHATTEI.S
97. History of the Action of Trover 299
98. Conversion defined 308
99. Conversion by Taking 311
100. Conversion by Detention 312
101. Conversion by Wrongful Delivery 315
102. Conversion by Wrongful Disposition 316
103. Conversion by Wrongful Destruction 317
104. Other Forms of Conversion 317
105. Acts not amounting to Conversion 318
106. Conversion by Estoppel 321
107. The Title of the Plaintifif 322
107a. Conversion as between Co-owners 328
108. Conversion and the Limitation of Actions 329
109. The Measure of Damages for Conversion 332
110. Specific Restitution of Chattels 336
111. Replevin 341
112. Effect of Judgment in an Action of Trover 342
113. Trespass to Chattels 344
114. Wrongful Damage to Chattels 345
115. Wrongful Loss of Chattels 346^
CHAPTER XI
INJURIES TO THE PERSON
116. Death
117. Assault
118. Bodily Harm
119. False Imprisonment
347
361
352
354^
CHAPTER XII
LIABILITY FOR DANGEROUS PROPERTY
120. Liability of Occupiers for NcgMgcnce
121. LiabiUty of Occupiers on a Warranty of Safety
122. Liability of Occupiers to Bare Licensees
123. Liability of Occupiers to Trespassers
124. Liability of the Owner of Premises
125. Liability for Dangerous Chattels
126. Dangerous Animals : Proof of Scienter
126a. Absolute Rcspousibihty for Animals
359
362
364
368
372
376
383
386
i
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIII
mJUBIES TO DOMESTIC RELATIONS
SECTION
127. Parent and Child
128. Master and Servant
129. Master and Servant
130. Husband and Wife
Seduction
Other Injuries
PAGE
395
396
401
403
CHAPTER XIV
DEFAMATION
131. Defamation defined. Libel and Slander
132. The Defamatory Nature of a Statement
133. Defamation of a Corporation
134. Interpretation of Defamatory Statements
135. The Innuendo
136. Proof of Reference to the Plaintiff
137. Publication
138. Justification
139. Privilege
140. Absolute Privilege
141. Qualified Privilege
142. Statements in Performance of Duty
143. Statements in the Protection of an Interest
144. Fair Comment
145. Privileged Reports
146. Slander and Special Damage
147. Slander actionable per se
CHAPTER XV
DECEIT AND INJURIOUS FALSEHOOD
148. Deceit
149. Injurious Falsehood
150. Deceptive Trade Names, Marks, and Descriptions
406
407
410
411
413
414
416
420
422
424
427
431
4.32
434
441
443
445
447
456
459 So'^
151.
152.
CHAPTER XVI
INTIMIDATION
Intimidation of a Person to his own Injury
Intimidation of a Person to another's Lijury
469
470 '5'^
153.
154.
CHAPTER XVII
WRONGFUL PROCESS OF LAW
Liability of the Superior Courts of Justice
Liability of Inferior Courts of Justice
480
481
xiv CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
155. Malicious Prosecution and other Malicious Process 485
156. Erroneous and Irregular Proceedings 495
157. Maintenance 497
CHAPTER XVIII
RESIDUARY FORMS OF INJURY
] 58. Inducemerit of Breach of Contract 500
15!). The Breach of Statutory Duties 502
100. The Breach of Common -Law Obligations 507
101. Injuries to Immaterial Property 507
INDEX OF CASES
Abraham v. Bullock, 94
Abrahams v. Deakin, 92
Abrath v. N.E. Railway Co., 57, 485,
489, 491, 492
Ackrovd v. Saiitli, 236, 237
Acton u. Blundell, 277
Adam v. British and Foreign Steam-
ship Co., 351
Adam.son v. Jarvis, 79, 80
Addis V. Gramaphone Co., 109
Addison v. Overend, 81
Alabaster v. Harness, 498, 499
Alcott V. Millar's Karri Forests,
Ltd., 458
Alexander v. Jenkins, 446
V. N.E. Railway Co., 421
V. Southey, 304, 314
Allan V. Liverpool, 173
Allbutt V. General Council of Medical
Education, 442
Allcock V. Hall, 30
Allen V. Flood, 18, 20, 470, 472, 473,
478, 500
V. London & S.W. Railway Co.,
92
V. Rivington, 184
V. ^V'right, 358
Allsop V. Allsop, 444
Alston V. Scales, 296
Alton V. Midland Railway Co., 401
Ambergate Railway Co. v. Midland
Railway Co., 160
Ambler v. Gordon, 262
Anderson v. Gorrie, 480, 481
V. Oppenheimcr, 209
V. Pacific Insurance Co., 449
V. RadcliiTe, 174
Andrews v. Abertillerv, 172
V. Mockford, 453!! 454
V. Nott Bower, 432
Anglo-Algerian Steamship Co. v.
The Houlder Line, 10
Angus V. CliiJord, 450, 451
Ankersen i\ Connelly, 263
Anscomb v. Shore, 162
Anthony v. Haneys, 156
Apollo, The, 360, 367
Applebee v. Percy, 386
Appleby v. Franklin, 141
Arkwright v. Newbold, 448, 451
Armory v. Delamiric, 178, 184, 325,
332, 335
Armstrong v. Milburn, 137
Arris v. Stukeley, 145
Arrowsmith v. Le Mesurier, 354
Ash V. Dawney, 168
Ashby V. White, 167
Asher v. Whitlock, 183, 184
Atkinson v. Newcastle WaterworlvS
Co., 503, 504, 506
Attenborough v. London & St.
Katharine's Docks Co., 322, 328,
335
Attorney-General v. Borough of
Birmingham, 133
V. Cockermouth Local Board,
279
V. Cole, 200
V. Conduit Colliery Co., 253
V. Corporation of Manchester,
129
V. Corporation of Nottingham,
129, 190
V. Metropolitan Railway Co.,
219
?'. Thames Conservators, 283
r. Tod-Heatlev, 228
V. Tomline, 205
Austin V. Dowling, 355, 495
i\ Manchester, &c.. Railway
Co., 28
Ayre v. C-raven, 446
Backhouse v. Bonomi, 135, 136,
252
Bagshaw v. Go ward, 176
Bahia and San Francisco Railway
Co., In re, 452
Bailiffs of Romney Marsh v. Trinity
House, 113, 117
Baily v. iMorland, 267, 273, 274
Bainbridge v. Postmaster-General,
89
Baird v. Williamson, 207, 208
Baker v. Bolton, 347, 348, 403
V. Carrick, 432
XVI
INDEX OP CASES
Baker v. Snell, 390, 391, 392, 393
Baldwin v. Casella, 386
V. Cole, 305, 311
Ball V. Ray, 190, 217
Ball, ex parte, 141, 142
Ballard v. Toralinson, 191, 277, 278
Bamfield v. Goole, Ltd.. 380
Bamford v. Turnley, 196, 199, 200
Bank of New South Wales v.
Owston, 92
Barber v. Houston, 137
V. Penley, 284, 285
Barham v. Dennis, 395
Barker v. Herbert, 228, 289
i;. Furlong, 309, 311, 315,310,
321, 326
Barnes v. Lucille. 386
V. Ward, 285, 369
Barnett v. Earl of Guildford, 174
Barratt v. Kearns, 425
Barrett v. Associated Newspapers,
Limited, 458
Barry v. Croskey, 453
Bartlett v. Wells, 64
Bartonshill Coal Co. v. McQuire, 101
V. Reid, 98, 101
Barwick v. English Joint Stock
Bank, 58, 90, 93
Basebe v. Matthews, 494
Basely v. Clarkson, 16, 167
Bass V. Gregory, 265
Batchelor v. Fortescue, 368
Baten's case, 172
Bateson v. Gosling, 78
Batt V. Metropolitan Water Board,
293
Battishill v. Reed, 122, 123
Battley v. Favdkner, 135
Baxter v. Taylor, 296, 298
Bayley v. Manchester Railway Co.,
92
Beard v. London General Omnibus
Co., 91
Beam, The, 360
Beattie v. Lord Ebury, 449
Beauchamp, In re, 68
Beaulieu v. Finglam, 209, 223. 226
Beaumont v. Kayo, 68
Beckett v. Midland Railway Co., 287
Beckwith v. Philby, 17. 358
Bcddall V. Maitland, 154. 155
Bedc Steamship Co. v. River Wear
Commissioners, 360
Behrcns v. Richards, 132
Bell V. Great Northern Railway Co.,
353
V. Midland Railway Co., 109,
297
Benjamin v. Storr, 192, 215, 284
Bennett v. AUcott, 398
Bernina, The, 40, 41, 43, 44, 4G, 48,
118
Berringer v. Great Eastern Railway
Co., 401
Berry v. Adamson, 354
Berthon v. Cartwright, 403, 404
Besozzi V. Harris, 384, 388
Betjemann v. Betjemann, 138
Betts V. Gibbins, 79
Bibby v. Carter, 240, 241, 255
Bickett V. Morris, 280
Biddle v. Bond, 322, 327, 334
Bird V. Brown, 83
V. Holbrook, 369
V. Jones, 355
Birmingham Corporation v. Allen,
250
Bishop V. Balkis Consolidated Co..
456
V. Montagu (Viscountess), 306
Black V. Christchurch Finance
Co.. 15, 56, 202, 209, 210, 223.
226
Blackborough v. Graves, 81
Blackmore v. Vestry of Mile End,
292
Blades v. Higgs, 154, 155
Blake v. Barnard, 352
V. Lanyon, 402
V. Midland Railway Co., 8. 349
V. Woolf, 205, 209
Blakemore v. Bristol & Exeli r
Railway Co., 379
Blanchenay v. Burt, 497
Blaymire v. Haley, 401
Bliss V. Hall, 198, 217
Blofeld V. Payne, 462
Bloodworth v. Gray, 445
Blyth V. Birmingham Waterwork.-;
Co., 22, 289
Boden v. Roscoe, 160, 161. 162
Bodley v. Reynolds, 336
Bonnard v. Ferryman, 129
Booth V. Arnold, 446
Boots V. Grundy, 479
Borough of Bathurst v. Macpherson.
292
Bott V. Ackroyd, 484
Bottomley v. Brougham, 425
Bound V. Lawrence, 104
Bourne v. Fosbrooke, 326
Bo wen v. Anderson. 231, 232
V. Hall, 118, 402, 473, 500. 502
Bower V. Peate, 254, 256
Bowlston V. Hardy, 206
Bowyer v. Cook, 121, 123, 170
Box V. Jubb, 209. 210, 212
Boxsius V. Goblet Freres, 417, 419,
430
Boydel] v. Jones, 413
Bradford Corporation v. Ferrand,
277
Bradford (Mayor of) v. Pickles, 8,
10, 19, 277
INDEX OF CASES
xvu
Bradlaugh v. Newdegate, 497, 498
Bradley v. Copley, 323
Bradshaw v. L. & Y. Railway Co.,
70, 72
Brady v. Warren, 206
Brass v. Maitland, 376
Brent v. Haddon, 227, 230, 258
Brewer v. Sparrow, 146
Bridges v. Hawkesworth, 325, 335
V. North London Railway Co.,
37
Brierly v. Kendall, 333
Briggs V. Oliver, 33
Brinsmead v. Harrison, 77, 342, 343
Bristol & AVest of England Bank
V. Midland Railway Co., 321
British Cash and Parcel Conveyors,
Ltd., V. Lamson Store Service Co.,
498, 499
British Mutual Banking Co. v.
Charnwood Forest Railway Co.,
93
British South Africa Company v.
Companhia de Mocambique, 147
British Vacuum Cleaner Co. v. New
Vacuum Cleaner Co., 460, 464
Brittain v. Kinnaird, 483, 484
Broad v. Ham, 488, 489
Broadbent v. Ledward, 81
V. Ramsbotham, 268
Brock V. Copeland, 370
Brockbank v. Whitehaven Railway
Co., 403
Broder v. Saillard, 190, 191, 200,
207, 227, 257
Bromage v. Prosser, 18
Brook V. Rawl, 19
Brooks V. Hodgkinson, 497
Brown v. Boorman, 6
V. Chapman, 356, 495
V. Eastern and Midland Railway
Co., 285
V. Giles, 194
V. Great W. Railway Co., 46
V. Hawkes, 491, 492, 493
V. Robins, 254, 255
V. Smith, 445
Browne v. Powell, 162
Brownlie v. CamiJbell, 448
Bruen v. Roe, 307
Brunsden v. Humphrey, 120, 121
Brunswick (Duke of) v. Harmer, 50
Bryant v. Herbert, 4
V. Lefever, 266
Buccleuch (Duke of) v. Wakefield,
251
Bucldand v. Johnson, 146, 147
Buckley v. Gross, 325, 326, 327, 339
Bulcock V. St. Anne's Master
Builders' Federation, 479
Bullen V. Swan Electric Engraving
Co., 33
Bulli Coal Mining Co. v. Osborne,
137, 138
Bullock V. London General Omnibus
Co., 76
Bulmer v. Buhner, 349
Bunting v. Hicks, 267
Burgess v. Burgess, 465, 466
Burley v. Bethune, 482
Burling v. Read, 154
Burn V. Morris, 146
Burnard v. Haggis, 63
Burnett v. Lynch, 6
Buron v. Denman, 56, 83
Burr V. Smith, 425
V. Theatre Royal Drury Lane,
101
Burroughes v. Bayne, 314
Burrows v. March Gas Co., 117, 118
V. Rhodes, 79, 80
Burt V. Moor, 160
Bussy V. Amalgamated Society of
Railway Servants, 62
Butcher v. Butcher, 174
Butler V. Fife Coal Co., 24, 102
V. Manchester Railway Co., 245
Butt V. Imperial Gas Co., 237
Butterfield v. Forrester, 34, 36, 40
Butterknowle Colliery Co. v. Bishop
Auckland Co-operative Co., 251
Butterley Co. v. New Hucknall
Colliery Co., 251
Byrne v. Boadle, 33
V. Judd, 257
Byron (Lord) v. Johnston, 460
By well Castle, The, 37
Cable v. Bryant, 265
Calder v. Halkett, 485
Caledonian Railway Co. v. Mul-
holland, 382
Calliope, The, 360
Cameron v. Nystrom, 99
V. Young, 232, 374
Campbell Davys v. Lloyd, 159
Campbell v. Paddington, 59, 237,
286
V. Spottiswoode, 437
Canadian Pacific Railway Co. v.
Parke, 221
Capel V. Powell, 68
Capital and Counties Bank v. Henty,
407, 408, 411, 412
Card V. Case, 387
Carr v. Clarke, 398, 401
V. Fracis Times & Co., 148
Carratt v. .Morlcy, 356, 483
Carstairs v. Taylor, 209, 211
Casey v. Arnott, 457
Cash, Limited, v. Joseph Cash, 466
Castrique v. Behrens. 494
Cator V. Lewisham, 59
INDEX OF CASES
Cattle V. Stockton Waterworks Co.,
11, 192
Caudle v. Seymour, 483
Cavalier v. Pope, 232, 374, 378
Cave V. Mountain, 482, 484
Cellular Clothing Co. v.- Maxton,
462, 464
Central, &c., Co. v. Smith, 59
Chamberlain v. Williamson, 70
Chambers v. Donaldson, 173
Chaplin v. Westminster Corpora-
tion, 283, 284
Chapman i'. Fylde Waterworks Co.,
293
Chapman Morsons & Co. v. Auck-
land Union, 123
Charles v. Taylor, 101
Chasemore v. Richards, 19, 254, 276,
277, 278
Chastey v. Ackland, 266
Chatterton v. Secretary of State for