Cortois and vilain; a study of the distinctions made between them by the French and Provencal poets of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries online

I




I




1
'*





COR TO IS and 7ILAIN



A Study of the Distinctions Made Between

Them by the French and Provencal

Poets of the i2th, i3th and

1 4th Centuries



BY



STANLEY LEMAN GALPIN



A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF
YALE UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE
OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
1904



RYDER'S PRINTING HOUSE
NEW HAVEN, CONN.

1905



COR TO IS and VILA IN



A Study of the Distinctions Made Between

Them by the French and Provencal

Poets of the I2th, i3th and

1 4th Centuries



BY
STANLEY LEMAN GALPIN



A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF
YALE UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE
OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
1904



or THE
( VN1VEP TY j

,CALIFOH!ii>



RYDER'S PRINTING HOUSE
NEW HAVEN, CONN.

1905



It gives me pleasure to express here my
gratitude to Professors Henry R. Lang and
Frederick M. Warren of Yale University, whose
instruction it was my privilege to enjoy, and to
whose kindly criticisms and helpful suggestions
this thesis owes much.



TABLE OF CONTENTS.



PAGE.

I. Introduction, ..... 5

II. Historical, . . . . .13

III. The cortois has polished manners; the vilain, rude

manners, . . . . .16

IV. The cortois is gentle in speech ; the vilain, rough, 22
V. The cortois has mesure; the vilain lacks mesure, . 28

VI. The cortois is humble; the vilain, proud, . . 31

VII. The cortois is considerate ; the vilain, not considerate, 33

VIII. The cortois is helpful; the vilain, not helpful, . 40

IX. The cortois is good ; the vilain, bad, . 41

X. The cortois is generous ; the vilain, stingy, . 48

XL The cortois is richly dressed ; the vilain, poorly

dressed, . . . . .52

XII. The cortois is courageous ; the vilain, cowardly, . 54

XIII. The cortois is versed in the art of courtly love ; the

vilain, ignorant of the art of courtly love, . 58

XIV. The cortois may or may not indulge in guilty love ;

the vilain indulges in guilty love, . . 67

XV. The cortois is merry ; the vilain, gloomy, . . 73

XVI. The cortois is beautiful ; the vilain, ugly, . . 74

XVII. The cortois is intelligent ; the vilain, stupid, . 78

XVIII. The cortois is religious ; the vilain, not religious, . 82

XIX. (a) Miscellaneous attributes of the cortois, . 85

XIX. (b) Miscellaneous attributes of the vilain, . 87

XX. The cortois is loved ; the vilain, not loved, . . 88

XXI. Conclusions, . . . . -95

Bibliography, . . . . -97

Index, 101



"BRA*?"

or THE

UNIVERSITY
or

.CALIF03S

CORTOIS and VILA IN



i.

INTRODUCTION. 1

In southern France, as is well known, there developed in the
Middle Ages a refined aristocratic society such as for a time was
not to be found elsewhere, and which has had a permanent influence
upon the manners and modes of thought of all Europe. Long
immunity from wars had brought to this region a season of pros-
perity during which the arts of peace were cultivated. Brilliant
festivals had taken the place of warlike preparations, and songs of
sentiment were heard instead of songs of battle. 2 An important
result of this radical change of activity and interest from the things
of war to those of peace was the social emancipation of woman,
due also in large measure to the influence of the cult of the Virgin
Mary. Leaving the inferior position which she had long occupied,
and accorded a degree of personal freedom hitherto unknown to

*A portion of the expense of printing this thesis has been borne by the
Modern Language Club of Yale University from funds placed at its disposal
by the generosity of Mr. George E. Dimock of Elizabeth, New Jersey, a
graduate of Yale in the Class of 1874.

2 Ferdinand Wolf in Stengel's Ausgaben und Abhandlungen LXXXVII,
Marburg 1890, pp. 35-6.




CORTOIS and VILA IN



i.

INTRODUCTION. 1

In southern France, as is well known, there developed in the
Middle Ages a refined aristocratic society such as for a time was
not to be found elsewhere, and which has had a permanent influence
upon the manners and modes of thought of all Europe. Long
immunity from wars had brought to this region a season of pros-
perity during which the arts of peace were cultivated. Brilliant
festivals had taken the place of warlike preparations, and songs of
sentiment were heard instead of songs of battle. 2 An important
result of this radical change of activity and interest from the things
of war to those of peace was the social emancipation of woman,
due also in large measure to the influence of the cult of the Virgin
Mary. Leaving the inferior position which she had long occupied,
and accorded a degree of personal freedom hitherto unknown to

*A portion of the expense of printing this thesis has been borne by the
Modern Language Club of Yale University from funds placed at its disposal
by the generosity of Mr. George E. Dimock of Elizabeth, New Jersey, a
graduate of Yale in the Class of 1874.

2 Ferdinand Wolf in Stengel's Ausgaben und Abhandlungen LXXXVII,
Marburg 1890, pp. 35-6.



6 CORTOIS AND VILAIN.

her, and which has remained hers to the present time, owing to the
lasting influence of mediaeval Provencal culture, she stepped at once
into the chief place in the new society. For a long period she was
the centre of literary interest as the object of chivalric love, with
which the poets of the twelfth century were mainly occupied, and
which offered a welcome means of escape from a domestic life
which must have been anything but ideal, in view of the fact that
marriages under the feudal system were contracted for political
purposes exclusively. Under the influence of the new social con-
ditions a commerce de courtoisie, as Langlois has expressed it, 1
sprang up between the sexes.

A similar transformation took place in the aristocratic society
of northern France after Louis VI had succeeded in overcoming
the turbulent nobles and bringing his domain into a state of tran-
quility. This transformation was fostered by contact with the much
more advanced civilization of Provence, a contact which was brought
about by the Crusades, by the trouveres, who imitated the love-
songs of the troubadours, and by the marriage of Louis VII with
Eleanor of Poitou in H37- 2

The institution of the system of courtly love in the aristocratic
society of France is of interest to us here chiefly because it empha-
sized the differences already existing under the feudal system be-
tween the condition of the noble and that of the peasant, and
suggested to the poets comparisons between the two not already
suggested by the feudal system. As was natural, these comparisons
centered about the question of courtly love, and so the noble is
represented to us as endowed with all the graces which should be
found in a successful lover, while the vilain, or peasant, is pictured
as lacking these graces and endowed with their opposites. The
image of the vilctin thus drawn is, of course, a greatly exaggerated
one. 3

Derived respectively from the Latin *cortensis and *villmus, the
two terms cortois and vilain denoted originally in the vernacular
two classes socially distinct. The cortois was the noble, inhabiting
his chateau and there holding his court, or constituting one of the
members of the court of a noble more powerful than himself. The
term is thus used by Geffrei Gaknar in vv. 3617-20 of Lest or ie des

1 Origines et Sources du Roman de la Rose, p. 3.

'Ibid,, p. 4.

3 See Gaston Paris in Romania xxiv, page 143.



CORTOIS AND VILAIN. 7

Engles, where the expression li curtais is evidently equivalent to
cil de la curt :

Et quant iloc tant en parlouent

Cil de la curt i repairouent:

Et li curtais ke la veaient

De sa belte mult bien disaient.

The term is also thus used by Wace, Brut, vv. 10008-19, with refer-
ence to those who frequented King Arthur's court :

N'estoit pas tenus por cortois

Escos, ne Bertons, ne Frangois,

Normant, Angevin, ne Flamenc,

Ne Borgignon, ne Loherenc,

De qui que il tenist son feu

Des ocidant dusqu 'a Mont Geu,

Qui a la cort le roi n'alast,

Et qui od lui n'i sojornast,

Et qui n'avoient vesteure

Et contenance et armeure,

A la guise que cil estoient

Qui en la cort Artur servoient.

In Jaufre, Appel, Prov. Chrest., St. 3, vv. 56-58, we read that
Brunissens' castle is inhabited by cortois young men. In vv. 1951-3
of the Roman de Thebes, the word cortois is used of courtiers,
members of a court :

Li chevalier et li borgeis

Et li vilain et li corteis

De traison le rei blastengent. 1

In vv. 263-6 of the lai of Guingamor the word cortois is used in
the same sense :

Cil de la vile, li borjois,

Et li vilain et li cortois

Le convoierent austresi

O grant dolor et o grant cri.

The vilain, on the other hand, was the peasant who cultivated the
villae (agricultural districts) and inhabited the villages which grew
up among them. Cf. Du Cange, Glossarium: Villani dicti sunt a

*Cf. the passage from the Roman de Robert le Diable quoted by Du
Cange in his Glossarium under *corthesanus.



8 CORTOIS AND VILAIN.

villa, eo quod in villis commorentur. Also Jean de Conde, Des
Vilains et des Courtois, vv. 14-15:

II sont gent qui vilain ont non

Pour ce qu'en la ville demeurent.

This use is found in Marie de France, Fables, ix, v. I : Ci dit d'une
suriz vilaine, with which compare the title, De mure urbano et mure
silvestri, and v. 9 : La suriz de ville demande. The use of the
term vilain to denote a distinct class in feudal society was retained
throughout the middle ages and is so frequent in mediaeval texts
as to require no special illustration here.

The mediaeval artistic poetry of northern France and Provence,
both epic and lyric, composed primarily to be sung or recited at
the courts of the nobles, was naturally biased in favor of the courtly
class, and we are not surprised when we come to examine the
characteristics assigned to this class by the mediaeval poets to find
that they are almost without exception favorable, and that the vilain,
always an object of scorn to the nobles, is pictured as lacking all
the qualities which the cortois is represented as possessing, and
endowed with the opposites of these qualities. Jean de Conde sums
up the attitude of the literature of the twelfth to fourteenth centuries
toward the cortois and the vilain in Des Vilains et des Courtois,
vv. 1-3:

Vilain et courtois sont contraire ;

De Tun ne puet on bien retraire,

Et en 1'autre n'a fors que bien.

The poets, in pursuance of their policy of flattering the courtly
class, refer the origin and inspiration of cortoisie to God. Ille et
Galeron, vv. 1618-20:

Et courtoisie vient de Dieu,

Et qui de par Dieu preuz devient

Courtoisie aime et si s'i tient.
Le Roman de la Rose, i p. 235 :

Diex li cortois sans vilonie,

De qui muet toute cortoisie.

Having given a divine origin to cortoisie, the poets do not hesitate
to represent the acts of the vilain as prompted by the devil. Ille et
Galeron, vv. 1615-7:

Bien sai que del diable est plains

Qui pour se prouece est vilains;

Vilonie vient de vil lieu.



CORTOIS AND VILAIN. 9<

The Dit sur les vilains, vv. 83-88, assigns to the vilain a still less
savory origin.

Many mediaeval texts refer to the fact, undoubtedly true, that
those who frequented the courts of the nobles acquired a degree of
culture only there to be attained. Dante alludes to this fact in his
definition of cortesia in the Convito, tr. ii, c. 1 1 : Cortesia e onestade
e tutf uno : e perocche ndle corti anticamente le virtudi e li belli
costumi s'usavano (sic come oggi s'usa il contrario), si tolse quest o
vocabolo dalle corti; e fu tanto a dire cortesia., quanto uso di corte*
Thus Wace, Brut, vv. 10016-9 (quoted above), and vv. 10020-5:

De pluisors terres i venoient

Cil qui pris et honor querroient.

Tant por oir ses cortesies,

Tant por veir ses mananties,

Tant por conoistre ses barons,

Tant por aveir ses rices dons.

Wace, Rou, vv. 2166-7:

Richart, lur auoe, ensemble od sei merra,

En la curt od sun filz curteisie aprendra. 2

In a similar manner, the word vilenie was used to denote any action
or personal characteristic considered by courtly poets as worthy of a
vilain? from whose appellation they derived it. The poets occa-
sionally declare the reverse of the real process to be true, thus
casting a still greater slur upon the objects of their scorn. Le
Flabel d'Aloul, Fabliaux i 24, vv. 406-7 :

Par droit avez vilain a non,

Quar vilain vient de vilonie.
Des Vilains et des Courtois, vv. 20-21 :

Bien nous monstre raisons et drois

Que vilains vient de vilenie.

From the enjoyment of the privileges of courtly life the vilavt:
was excluded. Thebes, vv. 4563-70 :

J Cf. Alwin Schultz, Das Hofische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger, voL
i, PP- 155-6.

2 See also Tyolet, vv. 299-310; Sept Sages, vv. 441-6.
3 Cf. Alwin Schultz, loc. cit.



io CORTOIS AND VILA1N.

Onques en cort a nesun rei

Ne veistes tant gent conrei :

Tuit sont de maisniee escherie,

Que li dus ot tote norrie,

Treis mile fiz de vavasors

Et de barons et de contors ;

N'en i ot un fil de vilain,

Ne qui fust nez de basse main.

The mere suggestion of the vilain was unwelcome at court. Le Lai
d'Aristote, Fabliaux v 137, vv. 45-6:

Quar oevre ou vilonie cort

Ne doit estre noncie a cort.

The vilain 's fashion of speech was also out of place at court. Le
Conte de Peitieu, Rayn. Choix v, p. 118:

E que s guart en cort de parlar

Vilanamens.

Even if permitted to associate with the cortois, it was impossible for
the vilain to change his condition. Blondel de Neele, p. 40 :

Mais ce m'en a doucement conforte

Qu'onques je ne vi courtoise vilaine.
Guillaume de Dole, vv. 584-5 :

Que ja por nule segnorie

Nuls vilains n'iert se vilains non.
Le Roman de la Rose, i p. 122:

Vilains qui est cortois, c'est rage. 1

The distinction between cortois and vilain having early become
firmly established and developed, it was no longer necessary that
a man should be a member of the courtly class in order to deserve
the appellation cortois, it was enough that he should possess the
qualities which the noble was supposed to possess. In the same
manner any man, of whatsoever social rank, came to be termed
vilain by the mediaeval poets if his characteristics were those which
courtly poetry had attributed to the vilain. The following passages
will serve to show the confusion as to social status which arose

^ee also Dit sur les lilains, vv. 8-18.



CORTOIS AND VILAIN. 11

with the application of the two terms to all classes of society.
Geffrei Gaimar, Lestorie des Engles, vv. 5504-6:

Uns horn qui amenout peissons

As gardeins long le mareis,

Fist ke prodom e ke curteis.
Wace, Brut, vv. 10779-81 :

Plus erent cortois et vaillant,

Neis li povre pa'isant

Que chevalier en autres regnes. 1
Perceval, v. 21653:

Moult estes vilains chevalier. 2

The fact that the terms cortois 5 and vilain both substantive and
adjective, and the abstract nouns cortoisie and vilenie, had come into
general use to distinguish in regard to personal qualities rather
than social rank is discussed at length by Jean de Conde in Des
Vilains et des Court ois. He sums up his views on the subject in
vv. 137-144:

Par tant qui bien dist et bien oevre

Et qui s'assent a la bonne oevre

Gentius et courtois est par droit,

Je le vous 4 affi ci endroit ;

Et celui non de vilain done

Qui a vilounie abandone

Son cuer et le vuelt maintenir;

Devant tous 1'i veul soustenir.

In the Dit dc Gentillece, Jubinal, Nouv. Rec. ii, pp. 55-6, the poet
enlarges upon 1 the same conception of the znlain as

Li horn qui fet la vilonie,

Puisque li cuers s'i abandone.

This sentiment had already been voiced in Li respit del curteis et del
in-lain, strophe 43 :

^ee also Sept Sages, vv. 2484-8; Perceval, vv. 24779-85; De Florance et
de Blanche Flor, v. 95 and vv. 329-333.

2 See also the following passages in which a knight is termed vilain:
L'Atre Perillous, v. 3878; Perceval, vv. 16534-7; Erec, v. 198.

3 It may be noted in passing that the word gentile seems to have assumed
to a certain extent in Italian the role played by the word cortois in French.

*The text reads vons.



12 CORTOIS AND VILAIN.

Nature mult ferm lie

Et moustre sa mestrie

La ou soun regne tient.

Ne blametz vilein mie,

S'il dit sa vileinie !

De nature li vient.

Frut preoue bien, de quel arbre il est.
It also appears in the Roman de la Rose, i p. 68 :

Vilonnie fait li vilains.

The purpose of our study is to discover at what period the
contrast between cortois and vilain begins to be made, to follow it
down into the fourteenth century, and to ascertain in regard to
what personal qualities or characteristics this contrast was made by
the poets of northern France and Provence. Our surest evidence
has been found in passages which declare that one who follows a
certain line of conduct is cortois, or is vilain (substantive or ad-
jective), as the case may be. Other passages of equal value state
that cortoisie, or vilenie, consists in following a certain course of
action. This direct evidence has been supplemented by indirect
evidence from passages in which the quality or characteristic under
consideration is closely associated with cortoisie or vilenie ; e.g.
L'Atre Perillous, vv. 6164-5, Et si sai moult bien et si croi, Que
estes cortois et vaillans, in which cortoisie and valor are mentioned
together, and the idea of the latter term is already connoted by the
first, and more general, term.

I have divided the subject into sections, each one being devoted
to the consideration of a quality or characteristic attributed to the
cortois and of the opposite of this quality attributed to the ^nlam }
and the sections have been arranged genetically so as to fall into
two groups, sections III to XII inclusive dealing with those qualities
which concern a man in his feudal relations, and sections XIII to
XVIII inclusive with those which concern him as a lover. The
inductions, viz., the statements of the qualities or characteristics of
the cortois and vilain respectively, have been used as headings for
the sections, and the material from which they have been drawn
appears under each one, arranged logically rather than chronologi-
cally. The divisions will be found not to be always mutually ex-
clusive, but they are as nearly as possible those suggested by the
material upon which they are based.



CORTOIS AND VILAIN. 13

II.

THE CORTOIS AND THE VILAIN ARE REPRESENTED AS POSSESSING
OPPOSITE CHARACTERISTICS AS EARLY AS THE BEGINNING OF
THE 12TH CENTURY AND AS LATE AS THE 14TH CENTURY.

Passages in which the corlois is set off against the vilain as
his direct opposite begin to appear at a very early period in French
and Provengal literature. The first instance I have been able to
find appears in the canso, Mout iauzens me prenc en dinar, written
by Guilhem, comte de Peitieu, the first Provengal troubadour whose
works have come down to us, and who reigned from 1087 to 1127.
Appel, Prov. Chrest., St. n, vv. 25-30:

Per son ioy pot malautz sanar

E per sa ira sas morir

E savis horn enfolezir

E belhs horn sa beutat mudar

E'l plus cortes vilaneiar

E'l totz vilas encortezir.

The first example I am able to quote in French dates from approxi
mately the same period, and appears in the rhymed sermon Grant
mal fist Adam, written in the first third of the I2th century. In
the last two verses of strophe 30 contrast is made between wise and
foolish, and between cartels and vilain :

Dune puis jeo prover,

e raisun mostrer,

qu'il sunt mi proceain,

quant d'un sol lignage

sunt e fol e sage,

corteis e vilain.

Continuing in chronological order, an instance is found in Quant
I' aura doussa samarzis, a canso written by the troubadour Cercamon,
who flourished between the years 1120 and 1135. Appel, Prov.
Chrest., St. 13, vv. 49-5 1:

Per lieys serai totz fals o fis,

o vertadiers o pies d'enian,

o totz vilas o totz cortes.

Jaufre Rudel, a troubadour who wrote in the period between the
years 1130 and 1147, offers an example. Rayn. Choix iii, p. 95:

Quar ieu dels plus envilanitz

Cug que sion cortes leyau.



14 CORTOIS AND VILAIN.

The Roman de Troie, written c. 1160-70, contains the next examples
I have found in French. Vv. 5335-8:

Sa corteisie par fu tex,

Que cil de Troie et cil des Grex

Envers lui furent dreit vilain :

Ainz plus cortois ne menja pain.
Ibid., v. 10232:

Qu'el n'ert vilaine mes corteise.
Wace, in Rou, written 1160-1174, v. 2888, offers another example:

Cheualier(s) riche e poure, e vilain (s) e curteis.
Chretien de Troies contrasts vilain and cortois, and vilenie and
cortoisie, in two passages in his Yvain, written c. 1173. Vv. 31-32:

Qu'ancor vaut miauz, ce m'est a vis,

Uns cortois morz qu'uns vilains vis.
Ibid., vv. 2212-4:

Onques voir tant ne s'avilla

Qu'il deist de vos vilenie

Tant com il a fet corteisie.

In vv. 5836-7 of his Perceval, written c. 1177, appears the same
antithesis. Vv. 8377-84 of Partonopeus de Blois, written before
1188, imply that there is a greater distance between vilenie and
cortoisie than there is from hell to heaven above. Returning to
Provence, we find the antithesis between cortois and vilain in the
writings of Pons de Capdueil (fl. 1180-1190), Bertran de Born
(fl. 1156-1196), Rambaud de Vaqueiras (fl. 1180-1207), and NTJc
Brunet de Rodes (fl. c. 1190-1200). Pons de Capdueil, Rayn.
Choix iii, p. 183 :

Qu'el plus vilains es, quan vos ve,

Cortes, e us porta bona fe.
Bertran de Born, Rayn. Choix iv, p. 264 :

Guerra fai de vilan cortes.
Rambaud de Vaqueiras, Rayn. Choix iii, p. 256;

E sai esser plazens et enoios,
E vils e cars e vilas e cortes,
Avols e pros, e conosc mals e bes.

N'Uc Brunet de Rodes, quoted in the Breviari d'Amor, vv. 32533-5 :
Atretan leu pot horn ab cortezia
Renhar qui sap et ab fahs avinens
Cum ab foldat ni ab far vilania.



CORTOIS AND VILAIN. 15

A similar contrast between cortois and vilain appears in the writ-
ings of later poets as follows: Blondel de Neele (fl. end of I2th
cent.), ed. Tarbe p. 40. Perceval ( Pseudo-Gautier ; after 1200),
v. 12788. Guiraut de Bornelh (fl. 1175-1220), Kolsen p. 92.
L'Atre Perillous (c. 1215-20), vv. 5100-5102. Guerin's fablel Du
chevalier qui fist les c. parler (first third of I3th cent.), Fabliaux
vi 147, vv. 1 86-8. Guerin's fablel De la Grue, Fabliaux v 126, vv.
11-13. Hugues de Saint-Cyr (troubadour, fl. 1200-56), Rayn.
Choix v, p. 226. Li respit del curteis et del vilain (first half of
I3th cent.), strophe 44. Flamenco (1234 or 1235), vv. 6771-5.
Guillaume de Lorris, in the first part of the Roman de la Rose' (c.
1237), ed. Michel i p. 122. The fablel Du prestre et du chevalier,
by Milon d' Amiens (c. middle of I3th cent.), Fabliaux ii 34, vv.
188-9. La Clef d' Amors (1280), vv. 2654-6; vv. 691-2. Matfre
Ermengaud, in his Breviari d'Amor (begun in 1288), vv. 31419-20;
vv. 3097I-5-

The latest dated example of the antithesis of cortois and vilain
which I have found within the limits of the material examined
appears in Des Vilains et des Courtois, by Jean de Conde, who
flourished between the years 1313 and 1340, and thus had more
than two centuries of courtly poetry and tradition from which to
draw thq conclusions he sets forth in vv. 1-3:

Vilain et courtois sont contraire;

De Tun ne puet on bien retraire,

Et en 1'autre n'a fors que bien.

The didactic poem De Courtoisie, for which I have no| date, places
les curtaisies in antithesis to les villainies, strengthening the contrast
by paralleling it with one between cleanliness and filth (vv. 116-9) :

Plus ameretz les curtaisies

Et lerretz les villainies.

Plus ameretz les nectetetz,

Les ordures enchiueretz.

Paul Meyer in Romania xii, p. 15, note 3, prints a North Italian
Alfabeto del villano, whose ideas he considers to be of the middle
ages, although its redaction is modern. It contains a series of
insults addressed to the vilain, and (vv. 3-4) contrasts cortesia and
villania :

Bonta non regna in lui, ne cortesia,

Ma sol malizia, inganni e villaniaj



i6 CORTOIS AND VILAIN.

This Alfabeto is especially interesting to us, in that it brings the
conventional expression of hatred for the vilain, which prevailed in
mediaeval courtly circles, down to modern times.



III.

THE CORTOIS HAS POLISHED MANNERS; THE VILAIN HAS RUDE
MANNERS.

The distinction drawn between the cortois and the vilain, the
one possessed of an agreeable and polished manner, the other rough
and rude, is a fundamental one, for its cause goes back to the orig-
inal social distinction between the two. The cortois, reared at
court in the midst of the highest culture of his time, naturally