William Kennett Loftus.
Travels and researches in Chaldæa and Susiana; with an account of excavations at Warka, the Erech of Nimrod, and Shúsh, Shushan the Palace of Esther, in 1849-52 .. online
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TRATEW AND RESEARCHES
CHALDtEA and SFSIANA;
WITH AH AOOOUHT OP BXCAVATIOITS AT
waeka, the "erech" of nimrod,
AND
SirtSH, " SHIJSHAN THE PAUCE" OF ESTHER,
IN 1849-52,
UXDEB THE OBDKRS OF
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR W. P. WILLIAMS OF KAR8, BART., K,C.B., M.P.,
AND ALSO OF THE ASSYRIAN EXCAVATION FUND IN 1858-4.
BY
WILLIAM KEMEn LOFTUS, F.G.S.
** Why doal tboo bom lb* hiJl. ton of tb« wi^CMl diqri ^-Thoa ]0(dE«rt ft«m tfa7 ^^
jrvi • ftfw 7»n. uid tlM blMt of tb« dtMct ooBiM : U bowb tn thj amptr «Mnt.''-OM<M«.
LONDON:
JAMES NISBET AND CO. 21 BERNERS STREET.
M.DCCC.LVII,
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SDIWBUAOH :
PBIMTED BY BALLlNTYNfi AKDOOaCPAHT,
PAUL'S WORK,
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TO
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR WILLIAM FENWICK WILLIAMS,
or KABS, BART., E.O.B., M.P., ETC.,
£^s ^ahxmt is "^nmthtb,
IN ADMIRATION OF HIS BRILLIANT ACHIEVEMENTS,
AND
IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OP FOUR HAPPY YEARS
PASSED UNDER HIS COMMAND
UPON THE TURCO-PERSIAN FRONTIER.
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PEEFACE.
The following pages are due to researches in that
remote, and but partially explored region, which,
from our childhood, we have been led to regard as
the cradle of the human race.
The matter they contain is the result of two
visits to the countries in question : first, in con-
nexion with the Turco-Persian Frontier Commis-
sion in 1849-62, under the orders of Colonel, now
Major-General Sir W. F, Williams, Bart., of Kars;
and secondly, in conduct of the Expedition sent
out by the Assyrian Excavation Fund, at the end
of the year 1853.
On returning to England in the middle of last
year, I hoped that the Committee of the above
Society would have published in extensoy and in
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VI PREFACE.
another form, the fruits of its investigations in
Chaldaea and Assyria ; but, this plan having been
abandoned, I am induced to embody the records
of some portion of my journeys and researches in
the following pages.
Although this volume does not chronicle the
discovery of sculptured palaces, such as the sister-
land of Assyria has yielded, yet it comprises
accounts of cities existing centuries before the
greatness of Nineveh rose to astonish the Eastern
world, and of sites containing the funereal remains
and relics of primaeval races. With the more
important of those great necropolis-cities I hope
to make the reader familiar.
In my account of Warka, I have, for the sake of
brevity, combined the results of my three visits ;
and, since the modem Sheah custom of burial, to
a certain extent, corresponds with that which pre-
vailed at the great Chaldaean cemeteries, I have
introduced, in the early part of the work, a de-
scription of the celebrated Persian shrines and
cemeteries at Meshed 'All and Kerbella.
Although the ruins of Babylon have been
repeatedly described, I have made a brief allusion
to them, and mentioned the most recent discoveries
made there, because a work on Chaldaea would be
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PBEFACE. Ml
necessarily imperfect without some reference to,
or description of, its great capital. In, doing this,
I have touched upon some points which have not
hitherto been noticed.
The discoveries made at Shdsh, during the
progress of the Frontier Commission, are equally
interesting in a biblical, as in an historical sense,
for they identify, beyond reach of cavil, the exact
position of "Shushan the palace,'' where the events
recorded in the book of Esther took place, and
settle many diflScult questions connected with the
topography of Susa, and the geography of the
Greek campaigns in Persia, under Alexander the
Great and his successors.
In the course of the work, I have had repeated
occasion to refer to the labours, and quote the
opinions of others ; in doing so, I trust that I have
accorded to each his due share in Chaldaean
research.
Since there appears to be no golden rule for the
orthography of Oriental names — at any rate, as
each writer on Eastern subjects adopts his own
method of spelling, I have chosen one which,
while it approximates as nearly as possible to the
native pronunciation, agrees likewise with the
written orthography. In carrying this out, I am
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VUl PREFACE.
deeply indebted to Mr Kedhouse for his valuable
corrections; and, although many well-known names
appear here in somewhat different guise from that
which they usually wear, I conceive that it is
better to risk the charge of pedantry than to per-
petuate errors, I am, nevertheless, fully aware
that there are several inaccuracies in this respect,
because the late severe illness of Mr Redhouse
prevented my asking his aid until some of the
early sheets had passed through the press. These
it is proposed to amend, if another edition of the
work be required. K, however, the accented
vowels be attended to, the reader will approach
very nearly to the native pronunciation. The d
is equivalent to the French a: the e to the French
e; i corresponds to the sound of ee; u to that of
00 ; and the guttural aspirate is represented in
such words as ^Mi and Musd^d.
It gives me great pleasure here to record my
sincere obligations to others of my friends who
have aided me with their advice and corrections
while the work was in the press; more especially to
the Rev. Dr Hamilton, Mr J. F. Nicholson, Mr
Radford, Mr Birch, Mr Vaux, and Mr Boutcher.
To the last-named gentleman I am likewise in-
debted for the careful copies on wood of his own
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PREFACE. IX
original drawings, made on the spot for the
Assjnrian Excavation Society, and also of those
(now in the British Museum) made by the friend
and companion of my first journey, Mr H. A.
Churchill.
I here likewise take the opportimity of acknow-
ledging the aid and encouragement afforded to me
on the field of my researches. To General
Williams I am in an especial manner indebted for
the facilities which, as British Commissioner, he
invariably granted to me in carrying out such
plans as were advantageous to the success of my
labours. During the more recent Expedition on
behalf of the Assyrian Excavation Fimd, my
eflforts were materially aided by the position
assigned me by the Earl of Clarendon, as an
Attache of our Embassy at Constantinople during
the continuance of the Expedition, for which I
return my grateful acknowledgments. My thanks
are also due to his Excellency Lord Stratford de
Redcliffe, the first patron of Assyrian research,
who, amidst other and most onerous duties, applied
to tlje Porte for, and obtained, new firmdns for
excavation. And, lastly, to Sir Henry Rawlinson
I desire to express my obligations for the assist-
ance rendered me in his then official capacity, as
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X PREFACE.
Consul-General at B^ghddd, by his influence with
the Turkish authorities and native Arab chiefs.
In conclusion, I hope that the new facts and
observations which I am enabled to lay before the
reader will insure me some consideration for my
literary inexperience.
W. K. L.
Norwood, December 1856.
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CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
London to B%hd£d — ^Turkish and Persian Troubles — Colonel
Williams and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople
— Mesopotamia — A Floweiy Wilderness — The City of Hfi-
rdnu-'r-K^shid — ^Pestilence — Nedjib and Abdl Pashas . 1
CHAPTER II.
B%hd£d to Babylon — ^The Kh6n — Canals and Ancient Fertility —
Shapeless Mounds — ^Fulfilment of Prophecy . . .13
CHAPTER ni.
Hillah— Tdhir' Bey and the Turkish Brass Band— The Oven
Dance — ^Martial Escort — Bridge of Boats — Bfrs Nimrdd — ^Its
true Theory — Sir H. Rawlinson's Discoveries — ^The Seven-
coloured Walls of the Temple of the Spheres — Chaldee
Astronomy 21
CHAPTER IV.
View from Bfrs Nimrdd— Keffil—Ezekiers Tomb— Children of
the Captivity 33
CHAPTER V.
The Marshes of Babylon — Ehuzeyl Arabs — ^The Euphrates, and its
Canals — Semiramis — ^Nebuchadnezzar — Cyrus — Alexander —
Shdjah-ed-Dowla, and the Indian Canal 38
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XU CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
PAOS
Kti&— A Fiery Ride— Nedjef, and the Tomb of 'Alf— The
Ghyfiwr in the Grolden Mosque — Fanaticism of the Sheahs —
Far-travelled Coflfins and Costly Interments — How the Prime-
Minister got a Grave at a Great Bargain — ^Turkish Torpor and
Cleanliness versus Persian Dirt and Vivacity ... 47
CHAPTER VII.
Kerbella — ^The Governor's Dejeuner — ^The "Martyr" Hiuss^yn,
and his Mosque — Siege and Massacre — ^The " Campo Santo "
at KerbeUa — Oratory of 'AH — Magnificent Sunrise — Eastern
Ladies, Mounted and on Foot — ^The Ferry .... 59
CHAPTER VEIL
Climate of Chaldaea — Christmas in B%hd£d — Departure for the
South — Mub^k's Misadventure — ^The Kydya of Hillah —
Bashi-Btoiks 72
CHAPTER IX
From Hillah into the Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — ^The
Surly Sheikh, and his Black Slave — CoflTee-making — Rhubarb
and Blue Pill— New Year 1850 80
CHAPTER X
The Mighty Marsh — The Reed-Palace — Shooting-malch —
NifiGu* — ^Theory on the Chaldseans — Probable Ethiopic Origin
— ^NiflGar, the Primitive Calneh, and Probable Site of the
Tower of Babel — ^Beni Rechdb, the Rechabites of Scripture 91
CHAPTER XI.
Diwinfyya — Camp of Abdi Pasha — Mulla ' Alf, the Merry Ogre —
Sheep-skin Rafts — Statue-hunting — Hammdm — Solemn Gran-
deur of Chaldaean Ruins — ^The Statue — Tel Ede — ^Alarm of
the Arabs — ^First Impressions of Warka .... 105
CHAPTER XII.
Bedouins — ^Mfibfirek becomes useful — Ruins of Mugeyer — Cy-
linders — Chedorlaomer ? — Belshazzar — ^The Author and his
Guides put to flight their Turkish Escort — Busrah — ^Arrival
in Persia . • 126
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(X)NTENTS. XUl
CHAPTER XIII.
PACK
Plans and Preparations for Excavating in Wabka. — ^The Party-
Arrival at Sdk-eah-Slieioukh — FahlLd, Sheikh of the Mun-
tefik— Reception Tent— Falcons— The Letter and Escort . 139
CHAPTER XIV.
Winter — Camel-foals — ^Tuweyba Tribe — Old Friends — ^Harassing
Labours — Dissatisfection — Budda, the Grave-digger and Gold-
finder — Arab Kindness — Warka in 1854 — Difficulties —
Scarcity of Food and Water — Patriarchal Life in Abraham's
Country — Misery and Rapacity — Sand-storms .146
CHAPTER XV.
" The Land of Shinar"— Warka, the Ancient " Erech "— « Ur of
the Chaldees" — Scene of Desolation and Solitude — Enormous
Extent of Ruins — The Buwfirfyya — ^Reed-mat Structure . 159
CHAPTER XVL
" Wuswas" Ruin — ^The Earliest Explorer — Rude Ornamentation
— Columnar Architecture — Palm Logs the Probable Typ^ —
New Light on the External Architecture of the Babylonians
and Assyrians — ^Interior of Wuswas — ^The Use of the Arch in
Ancient Mesopotamia — Search for Sculptures — ^The Warrior
in Basalt 171
CHAPTER XVIL
New Styles of Decorative Art — Cone-work — ^Pot-work — ^Arab
Aversion to Steady Labour — Blood-Feud between the Tuweyba
and El-Bej — ^The Encounter Frustrated — ^The Feud Healed —
Diversions after the Work of the Day . , . .187
CHAPTER XVIIL
The absence of Tombs in the Mounds of Assyria — ^Their abundance
in Chaldsea — ^Warka a vast Cemetery — Clay Sarcophagi of
various forms — ^Top-shaped Vase, or " Babylonian Urn** —
Oval Dish-cover Shape — Slipper-shape — Di£&culties of Re-
moval — ^Excitement of the Arabs — Gold Ornaments — Coins —
Vases — ^Terra-Cotta Penates — Light-fingered Arabs — ^The Or-
deal — ^Endurance of Pain — Earliest Relics . . .198
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XIV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIX.
PAOE
Bank-notes of Babylon — Relics Ii\jured by Fire — ^A Fruitful
Mound — Chamber containing Architectural Ornaments —
Origin of the Saracenic Style — Clay Tablets with Seal Im-
pressions and Greek Names — Continuance of Cuneiform until
B.C. 200 — Himyaric Tomb-stone — Conical Mounds — Style for
Writing Cuneiform — ^The Shat-el-Nfl — General Results of the
Excavations at Warka — Probable Relics still Buried there .221
CHAPTER XX.
Sinkara — Decamping — Ride in a Sand-drift — ^The Negro Lion-
slayer — ^A Nocturnal Visiter — Dull uniformity of Sinktek —
The Temple of Pharra — The Dream and its Fulfilment —
Nebuchadnezzar and Nebonit rebmlders of Temples — ^Another
great Necropolis — ^Tablets and their Envelopes of Clay —
Babylonian Arithmetic — Pictorial Records — Boxers in the
Land of Shinar — ^The Dog-devourer 240
CHAPTER XXL
Treasures found at Tel Sifr — Juvenile Footpads — Medina — Ylsuf
and his Excavations at Tel Sifr — Large Collection of Curio-
sities in Copper — Private Records, b.c. 1500 — Female Ex-
cavators — ^The Works in Chaldsea abruptly interrupted —
Leave-taking — Grateful Labourers — Embarkation on the
Euphrates — River-craft and Amphibious Arabs — " The
Mother of Mosquitoes" 263
CHAPTER XXIL
Mohammerah — ^Litense Heat — Sickness — L^on of Blood-suckers
— Colony of Alexander the Great — Charax — ^The Delta of the
Tigris and Euphrates — Disputes between the Turks and Per-
sians — ^The Chfi'b Arabs and their Territories . . . 279
CHAPTER XXIIL
Setting out for Susa— The Sulky Ferryman — Coffee-cups and In-
fidels — ^Ahwdz — ^A False Alarm — Shlster — Dilapidation and
Dirt — Shiptir and the Captive Emperor Valerian — ^Their
Grand Hydraulic Works — ^Festivities at Shtister — Tea — ^The
Forbidden Beverage — Climate of Shdster — ^Failure in Diplo-
macy 287
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CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTEK XXIV.
PAOB
Departure from Shtister — Change of Scenery and Animal life —
Huge lizards — ^Botany — Oeology of the Persian Steppes —
Shlkh-^b6d — ^Dizfdl — Subterranean Ccmduits — Costume of the
People— The 'All Kethk Guide— The Bridge of the Diz—
Encampment at Shtish — A Conflagration .... 306
CHAPTER XXV.
The Tomb of the Prophet Daniel — ^Arabic Traditions regarding
him — Benjamin of Tudela*s Account — Present State of the
Sepulchre — Spies and Persian Fanaticism — Charge of Sacri-
lege — Ferment in Dizfll and the Neighbourhood — ^The *Alf
Kethfr Arabs — ^An accident beftds the Author — Compelled to
abandon the Mounds of Shtish — Battle between the 'All Eethlr
and Beni L6m — Sule jman EMn the Christian Goyemor of a
Mohammedan Province — ^Arrival of Colonel Williams . .317
CHAPTER XXVL
Early History of SusA — ^From the days of Cyrus, Susa the Win-
ter-residence of the Persian Kings — Ahasuerus identical with
Xerxes — ^Immense wealth found by Alexander — ^Power of
Susa declines — Its Ruins at the present day — ^Abundance of
Wild Beasts — Imposing aspect of Susa in early times . . 335
CHAPTER XXVn.
Excavations commenced by Colonel Williams — ^A Burglar — Con-
viction and Punishment — Gigantic Bell-shaped Bases of
Columns discovered — ^A Yearns Interruption — Proposed Re-
sumption in 1852 — Journey under the Protection of the Benf
L4m — ^The Segwend Lfirs — Hiring of Native "Navvies'* —
Opposition of the Priesthood — ^The Cholera ascribed to the
late researches — ^The New Viceroy, Kh^er Mirza . . 349
CHAPTER XXVIIL
The Great Palace of Darius at Susa — Columns with Double-bull
Capitals — Trilingual Inscriptions of Artaxerxes Mnemon —
" Court of the Garden" of Esther — Colimmar and Curtain
Architecture — Origin of the Susian and Persepolitan Style-
Worship of Tanoitis or Yenus 364
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XVI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIX.
PAOK
Hostility and Reconciliation — ^An Arrival — ^The L6t Workmen —
Insurrection of Seyids — ^Administration of Justice — Novel
Method of Smoking — Colonel Williams' Horses Stolen — ^An
Arab attack Repelled — ^The Haughty Himibled — ^Besieged by
aHirem 381
CHAPTER XXX.
A Long Trench — Enamelled Bricks — Masons' Marks — ^A Hoard
of Coins — ^Was Susa destroyed by Alexander? — Greek In-
scriptions — Pjiliagoras and the Persian Daric — Unexpected
Visit from the Guardian of the Tomb— Inscriptions and other
Early Relics on the Great Mound — Alabaster Vases of Xerxes
— Egyptian Cartouch — ^Mr Birch's Remarks thereon — Sculp-
tured Trough 396
CHAPTER XXXI.
The " Black Stone" — Its Discovery and Adventures — ^Its Con-
nexion with the Welfare of Khdzistfin — ^The Plot for its Re-
moval Defeated — Investigations among the Rivers of Susa —
Identification of the "Ulai," or Eulaeus — Bifurcation of
Modem Rivers — Sheikh AbduUa Forgiven — ^Friendly Parting
between the Arabs and the Frank 416
Chbonolooical Table 435
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OHALDiEA AND SUSIANA.
CHAPTER I.
London to B^ghcUul — ^Turkisli and PersiAn Troubles — Colonel William9
and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople — ^Mesopotamia —
A Floweiy Wilderness — ^The City of Hlurtinu-'r-R^shld — Pestilence
— Nedjib and Abdl Pashas.
Fob many centuries the extensive frontier between Turkey
and Persia has been in an unsettled state, continually
changing its limits as the strength or influence of
either Government for the time prevailed. The affable
Persian naturally regards the haughty Osminli in the
light of an intruder upon those rich plains which owned
obedience to the might of the Kayanians and Sassanians
in the days of D4r4b and Sh&piir. Keligious difference,
moreover, adds to the political animosity of the two great
Mohammedan powers. The phlegmatic Turk quietly
smokes his chibiik, swears by the beard of. Omar, and
thanks the omnipotent Allah for all the blessings he
enjoys ; on the other hand, the ardent follower of the
martyred 'Ali curses the orthodox believer, and takes
every opportimity to insult his patron saints. It may be
easily conceived that such political and religious disagree-
ments are frequently productive of a state of anarchy and
bloodshed, when the subjects of the two nations come into
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2 THE TURKO-PERSIAN FRONTIER.
close contact. To add to the difficulties attending any
proposed reconciliation, the frontier is inhabited by various
predatory races, who regard both Turk and Persian with
equal hatred, and who are only too happy to exercise their
plundering propensities by incursions into either territory.
The internal divisions and jealousies which exist among
these warlike tribes fortunately prevent them from com-
bining, as in the days of the Parthians, and proving
formidable competitors for the possession of Oriental
dominion.
In 1839-40, the outbreak of serious hostilities between
the Turkish and Persian Governments, arising from the
causes above mentioned, was imminent, and likely, in
the course of time, to endanger the tranquillity of the
whole world. The Cabinets of England and Kussia, in-
fluenced doubtless by the proximity of their own fron-
tiers in India and Georgia to the regions in question, and
therefore interested in the maintenance of peace, offered
their friendly mediation for the purpose of restraining
the belligerent attitude of their Mohammedan neighbours.
The proposal was accepted, and commissioners from the
four powers assembled at Erzenim, who, after sitting four
years, eventually concluded a treaty, one article of which
determined that representatives should be sent to survey
and define a precise line of boundary which might not
admit of future dispute. A joint commission was conse-
quently appointed to carry out this article. The British
Government selected Colonel WiUiams, RA.,**^ to this ser-
vice, his previous experience during the protracted con-
ferences at Erzenim having eminently qualified him for
the task now assigned him. Colonel Tcherikofi^ the
Russian commissioner, although not a party to the treaty,
* Tliroughout this volume, " the Hero of Kara " is alluded to under
the rank ho held at the time as Commissioner for the delimitation of the
frontier.
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JOURNEY. 3
was equally well chosen to represent the Czar. With
these officers were associated Dervish Pasha, and Mirza
Jifer Khdn, the commissioners for Turkey and Persia
respectively. Both had been educated in Europe. The
former enjoyed the reputation of being the most learned
savant among his countrymen, an excellent linguist and
chemist. The latter soon endeared himself to the mem-
bers of the various parties by his obliging manners and
many acts of kindness and attention.
In January 1849, I was attached by Lord Palmerston
as geologist to the staff of Colonel Williams, and directed
to lose no time in joining my chief On reaching Constan-
tinople, and presenting myself, according to instructions,
to Lord Stratford de Eedcliffe (then Sir Stratford Canning),
I learned that Colonel Williams and his party had set out
from thence on Christmas-day, and that letters had been
received, dated Siw&s, giving a deplorable account of the
state of the weather and roads. The snow had fallen to
such an unprecedented depth, that the greatest difficulty
beset their journey, and at several places it was found
necessary, after many days' detention, to cut roads for the
passage of the mules. Under these circumstances, the
ambassador detained me at Constantinople for a few
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TRATEW AND RESEARCHES
CHALDtEA and SFSIANA;
WITH AH AOOOUHT OP BXCAVATIOITS AT
waeka, the "erech" of nimrod,
AND
SirtSH, " SHIJSHAN THE PAUCE" OF ESTHER,
IN 1849-52,
UXDEB THE OBDKRS OF
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR W. P. WILLIAMS OF KAR8, BART., K,C.B., M.P.,
AND ALSO OF THE ASSYRIAN EXCAVATION FUND IN 1858-4.
BY
WILLIAM KEMEn LOFTUS, F.G.S.
** Why doal tboo bom lb* hiJl. ton of tb« wi^CMl diqri ^-Thoa ]0(dE«rt ft«m tfa7 ^^
jrvi • ftfw 7»n. uid tlM blMt of tb« dtMct ooBiM : U bowb tn thj amptr «Mnt.''-OM<M«.
LONDON:
JAMES NISBET AND CO. 21 BERNERS STREET.
M.DCCC.LVII,
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SDIWBUAOH :
PBIMTED BY BALLlNTYNfi AKDOOaCPAHT,
PAUL'S WORK,
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TO
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR WILLIAM FENWICK WILLIAMS,
or KABS, BART., E.O.B., M.P., ETC.,
£^s ^ahxmt is "^nmthtb,
IN ADMIRATION OF HIS BRILLIANT ACHIEVEMENTS,
AND
IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OP FOUR HAPPY YEARS
PASSED UNDER HIS COMMAND
UPON THE TURCO-PERSIAN FRONTIER.
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PEEFACE.
The following pages are due to researches in that
remote, and but partially explored region, which,
from our childhood, we have been led to regard as
the cradle of the human race.
The matter they contain is the result of two
visits to the countries in question : first, in con-
nexion with the Turco-Persian Frontier Commis-
sion in 1849-62, under the orders of Colonel, now
Major-General Sir W. F, Williams, Bart., of Kars;
and secondly, in conduct of the Expedition sent
out by the Assyrian Excavation Fund, at the end
of the year 1853.
On returning to England in the middle of last
year, I hoped that the Committee of the above
Society would have published in extensoy and in
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VI PREFACE.
another form, the fruits of its investigations in
Chaldaea and Assyria ; but, this plan having been
abandoned, I am induced to embody the records
of some portion of my journeys and researches in
the following pages.
Although this volume does not chronicle the
discovery of sculptured palaces, such as the sister-
land of Assyria has yielded, yet it comprises
accounts of cities existing centuries before the
greatness of Nineveh rose to astonish the Eastern
world, and of sites containing the funereal remains
and relics of primaeval races. With the more
important of those great necropolis-cities I hope
to make the reader familiar.
In my account of Warka, I have, for the sake of
brevity, combined the results of my three visits ;
and, since the modem Sheah custom of burial, to
a certain extent, corresponds with that which pre-
vailed at the great Chaldaean cemeteries, I have
introduced, in the early part of the work, a de-
scription of the celebrated Persian shrines and
cemeteries at Meshed 'All and Kerbella.
Although the ruins of Babylon have been
repeatedly described, I have made a brief allusion
to them, and mentioned the most recent discoveries
made there, because a work on Chaldaea would be
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PBEFACE. Ml
necessarily imperfect without some reference to,
or description of, its great capital. In, doing this,
I have touched upon some points which have not
hitherto been noticed.
The discoveries made at Shdsh, during the
progress of the Frontier Commission, are equally
interesting in a biblical, as in an historical sense,
for they identify, beyond reach of cavil, the exact
position of "Shushan the palace,'' where the events
recorded in the book of Esther took place, and
settle many diflScult questions connected with the
topography of Susa, and the geography of the
Greek campaigns in Persia, under Alexander the
Great and his successors.
In the course of the work, I have had repeated
occasion to refer to the labours, and quote the
opinions of others ; in doing so, I trust that I have
accorded to each his due share in Chaldaean
research.
Since there appears to be no golden rule for the
orthography of Oriental names — at any rate, as
each writer on Eastern subjects adopts his own
method of spelling, I have chosen one which,
while it approximates as nearly as possible to the
native pronunciation, agrees likewise with the
written orthography. In carrying this out, I am
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VUl PREFACE.
deeply indebted to Mr Kedhouse for his valuable
corrections; and, although many well-known names
appear here in somewhat different guise from that
which they usually wear, I conceive that it is
better to risk the charge of pedantry than to per-
petuate errors, I am, nevertheless, fully aware
that there are several inaccuracies in this respect,
because the late severe illness of Mr Redhouse
prevented my asking his aid until some of the
early sheets had passed through the press. These
it is proposed to amend, if another edition of the
work be required. K, however, the accented
vowels be attended to, the reader will approach
very nearly to the native pronunciation. The d
is equivalent to the French a: the e to the French
e; i corresponds to the sound of ee; u to that of
00 ; and the guttural aspirate is represented in
such words as ^Mi and Musd^d.
It gives me great pleasure here to record my
sincere obligations to others of my friends who
have aided me with their advice and corrections
while the work was in the press; more especially to
the Rev. Dr Hamilton, Mr J. F. Nicholson, Mr
Radford, Mr Birch, Mr Vaux, and Mr Boutcher.
To the last-named gentleman I am likewise in-
debted for the careful copies on wood of his own
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PREFACE. IX
original drawings, made on the spot for the
Assjnrian Excavation Society, and also of those
(now in the British Museum) made by the friend
and companion of my first journey, Mr H. A.
Churchill.
I here likewise take the opportimity of acknow-
ledging the aid and encouragement afforded to me
on the field of my researches. To General
Williams I am in an especial manner indebted for
the facilities which, as British Commissioner, he
invariably granted to me in carrying out such
plans as were advantageous to the success of my
labours. During the more recent Expedition on
behalf of the Assyrian Excavation Fimd, my
eflforts were materially aided by the position
assigned me by the Earl of Clarendon, as an
Attache of our Embassy at Constantinople during
the continuance of the Expedition, for which I
return my grateful acknowledgments. My thanks
are also due to his Excellency Lord Stratford de
Redcliffe, the first patron of Assyrian research,
who, amidst other and most onerous duties, applied
to tlje Porte for, and obtained, new firmdns for
excavation. And, lastly, to Sir Henry Rawlinson
I desire to express my obligations for the assist-
ance rendered me in his then official capacity, as
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X PREFACE.
Consul-General at B^ghddd, by his influence with
the Turkish authorities and native Arab chiefs.
In conclusion, I hope that the new facts and
observations which I am enabled to lay before the
reader will insure me some consideration for my
literary inexperience.
W. K. L.
Norwood, December 1856.
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CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
London to B%hd£d — ^Turkish and Persian Troubles — Colonel
Williams and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople
— Mesopotamia — A Floweiy Wilderness — The City of Hfi-
rdnu-'r-K^shid — ^Pestilence — Nedjib and Abdl Pashas . 1
CHAPTER II.
B%hd£d to Babylon — ^The Kh6n — Canals and Ancient Fertility —
Shapeless Mounds — ^Fulfilment of Prophecy . . .13
CHAPTER ni.
Hillah— Tdhir' Bey and the Turkish Brass Band— The Oven
Dance — ^Martial Escort — Bridge of Boats — Bfrs Nimrdd — ^Its
true Theory — Sir H. Rawlinson's Discoveries — ^The Seven-
coloured Walls of the Temple of the Spheres — Chaldee
Astronomy 21
CHAPTER IV.
View from Bfrs Nimrdd— Keffil—Ezekiers Tomb— Children of
the Captivity 33
CHAPTER V.
The Marshes of Babylon — Ehuzeyl Arabs — ^The Euphrates, and its
Canals — Semiramis — ^Nebuchadnezzar — Cyrus — Alexander —
Shdjah-ed-Dowla, and the Indian Canal 38
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XU CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
PAOS
Kti&— A Fiery Ride— Nedjef, and the Tomb of 'Alf— The
Ghyfiwr in the Grolden Mosque — Fanaticism of the Sheahs —
Far-travelled Coflfins and Costly Interments — How the Prime-
Minister got a Grave at a Great Bargain — ^Turkish Torpor and
Cleanliness versus Persian Dirt and Vivacity ... 47
CHAPTER VII.
Kerbella — ^The Governor's Dejeuner — ^The "Martyr" Hiuss^yn,
and his Mosque — Siege and Massacre — ^The " Campo Santo "
at KerbeUa — Oratory of 'AH — Magnificent Sunrise — Eastern
Ladies, Mounted and on Foot — ^The Ferry .... 59
CHAPTER VEIL
Climate of Chaldaea — Christmas in B%hd£d — Departure for the
South — Mub^k's Misadventure — ^The Kydya of Hillah —
Bashi-Btoiks 72
CHAPTER IX
From Hillah into the Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — ^The
Surly Sheikh, and his Black Slave — CoflTee-making — Rhubarb
and Blue Pill— New Year 1850 80
CHAPTER X
The Mighty Marsh — The Reed-Palace — Shooting-malch —
NifiGu* — ^Theory on the Chaldseans — Probable Ethiopic Origin
— ^NiflGar, the Primitive Calneh, and Probable Site of the
Tower of Babel — ^Beni Rechdb, the Rechabites of Scripture 91
CHAPTER XI.
Diwinfyya — Camp of Abdi Pasha — Mulla ' Alf, the Merry Ogre —
Sheep-skin Rafts — Statue-hunting — Hammdm — Solemn Gran-
deur of Chaldaean Ruins — ^The Statue — Tel Ede — ^Alarm of
the Arabs — ^First Impressions of Warka .... 105
CHAPTER XII.
Bedouins — ^Mfibfirek becomes useful — Ruins of Mugeyer — Cy-
linders — Chedorlaomer ? — Belshazzar — ^The Author and his
Guides put to flight their Turkish Escort — Busrah — ^Arrival
in Persia . • 126
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(X)NTENTS. XUl
CHAPTER XIII.
PACK
Plans and Preparations for Excavating in Wabka. — ^The Party-
Arrival at Sdk-eah-Slieioukh — FahlLd, Sheikh of the Mun-
tefik— Reception Tent— Falcons— The Letter and Escort . 139
CHAPTER XIV.
Winter — Camel-foals — ^Tuweyba Tribe — Old Friends — ^Harassing
Labours — Dissatisfection — Budda, the Grave-digger and Gold-
finder — Arab Kindness — Warka in 1854 — Difficulties —
Scarcity of Food and Water — Patriarchal Life in Abraham's
Country — Misery and Rapacity — Sand-storms .146
CHAPTER XV.
" The Land of Shinar"— Warka, the Ancient " Erech "— « Ur of
the Chaldees" — Scene of Desolation and Solitude — Enormous
Extent of Ruins — The Buwfirfyya — ^Reed-mat Structure . 159
CHAPTER XVL
" Wuswas" Ruin — ^The Earliest Explorer — Rude Ornamentation
— Columnar Architecture — Palm Logs the Probable Typ^ —
New Light on the External Architecture of the Babylonians
and Assyrians — ^Interior of Wuswas — ^The Use of the Arch in
Ancient Mesopotamia — Search for Sculptures — ^The Warrior
in Basalt 171
CHAPTER XVIL
New Styles of Decorative Art — Cone-work — ^Pot-work — ^Arab
Aversion to Steady Labour — Blood-Feud between the Tuweyba
and El-Bej — ^The Encounter Frustrated — ^The Feud Healed —
Diversions after the Work of the Day . , . .187
CHAPTER XVIIL
The absence of Tombs in the Mounds of Assyria — ^Their abundance
in Chaldsea — ^Warka a vast Cemetery — Clay Sarcophagi of
various forms — ^Top-shaped Vase, or " Babylonian Urn** —
Oval Dish-cover Shape — Slipper-shape — Di£&culties of Re-
moval — ^Excitement of the Arabs — Gold Ornaments — Coins —
Vases — ^Terra-Cotta Penates — Light-fingered Arabs — ^The Or-
deal — ^Endurance of Pain — Earliest Relics . . .198
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XIV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIX.
PAOE
Bank-notes of Babylon — Relics Ii\jured by Fire — ^A Fruitful
Mound — Chamber containing Architectural Ornaments —
Origin of the Saracenic Style — Clay Tablets with Seal Im-
pressions and Greek Names — Continuance of Cuneiform until
B.C. 200 — Himyaric Tomb-stone — Conical Mounds — Style for
Writing Cuneiform — ^The Shat-el-Nfl — General Results of the
Excavations at Warka — Probable Relics still Buried there .221
CHAPTER XX.
Sinkara — Decamping — Ride in a Sand-drift — ^The Negro Lion-
slayer — ^A Nocturnal Visiter — Dull uniformity of Sinktek —
The Temple of Pharra — The Dream and its Fulfilment —
Nebuchadnezzar and Nebonit rebmlders of Temples — ^Another
great Necropolis — ^Tablets and their Envelopes of Clay —
Babylonian Arithmetic — Pictorial Records — Boxers in the
Land of Shinar — ^The Dog-devourer 240
CHAPTER XXL
Treasures found at Tel Sifr — Juvenile Footpads — Medina — Ylsuf
and his Excavations at Tel Sifr — Large Collection of Curio-
sities in Copper — Private Records, b.c. 1500 — Female Ex-
cavators — ^The Works in Chaldsea abruptly interrupted —
Leave-taking — Grateful Labourers — Embarkation on the
Euphrates — River-craft and Amphibious Arabs — " The
Mother of Mosquitoes" 263
CHAPTER XXIL
Mohammerah — ^Litense Heat — Sickness — L^on of Blood-suckers
— Colony of Alexander the Great — Charax — ^The Delta of the
Tigris and Euphrates — Disputes between the Turks and Per-
sians — ^The Chfi'b Arabs and their Territories . . . 279
CHAPTER XXIIL
Setting out for Susa— The Sulky Ferryman — Coffee-cups and In-
fidels — ^Ahwdz — ^A False Alarm — Shlster — Dilapidation and
Dirt — Shiptir and the Captive Emperor Valerian — ^Their
Grand Hydraulic Works — ^Festivities at Shtister — Tea — ^The
Forbidden Beverage — Climate of Shdster — ^Failure in Diplo-
macy 287
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CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTEK XXIV.
PAOB
Departure from Shtister — Change of Scenery and Animal life —
Huge lizards — ^Botany — Oeology of the Persian Steppes —
Shlkh-^b6d — ^Dizfdl — Subterranean Ccmduits — Costume of the
People— The 'All Kethk Guide— The Bridge of the Diz—
Encampment at Shtish — A Conflagration .... 306
CHAPTER XXV.
The Tomb of the Prophet Daniel — ^Arabic Traditions regarding
him — Benjamin of Tudela*s Account — Present State of the
Sepulchre — Spies and Persian Fanaticism — Charge of Sacri-
lege — Ferment in Dizfll and the Neighbourhood — ^The *Alf
Kethfr Arabs — ^An accident beftds the Author — Compelled to
abandon the Mounds of Shtish — Battle between the 'All Eethlr
and Beni L6m — Sule jman EMn the Christian Goyemor of a
Mohammedan Province — ^Arrival of Colonel Williams . .317
CHAPTER XXVL
Early History of SusA — ^From the days of Cyrus, Susa the Win-
ter-residence of the Persian Kings — Ahasuerus identical with
Xerxes — ^Immense wealth found by Alexander — ^Power of
Susa declines — Its Ruins at the present day — ^Abundance of
Wild Beasts — Imposing aspect of Susa in early times . . 335
CHAPTER XXVn.
Excavations commenced by Colonel Williams — ^A Burglar — Con-
viction and Punishment — Gigantic Bell-shaped Bases of
Columns discovered — ^A Yearns Interruption — Proposed Re-
sumption in 1852 — Journey under the Protection of the Benf
L4m — ^The Segwend Lfirs — Hiring of Native "Navvies'* —
Opposition of the Priesthood — ^The Cholera ascribed to the
late researches — ^The New Viceroy, Kh^er Mirza . . 349
CHAPTER XXVIIL
The Great Palace of Darius at Susa — Columns with Double-bull
Capitals — Trilingual Inscriptions of Artaxerxes Mnemon —
" Court of the Garden" of Esther — Colimmar and Curtain
Architecture — Origin of the Susian and Persepolitan Style-
Worship of Tanoitis or Yenus 364
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XVI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIX.
PAOK
Hostility and Reconciliation — ^An Arrival — ^The L6t Workmen —
Insurrection of Seyids — ^Administration of Justice — Novel
Method of Smoking — Colonel Williams' Horses Stolen — ^An
Arab attack Repelled — ^The Haughty Himibled — ^Besieged by
aHirem 381
CHAPTER XXX.
A Long Trench — Enamelled Bricks — Masons' Marks — ^A Hoard
of Coins — ^Was Susa destroyed by Alexander? — Greek In-
scriptions — Pjiliagoras and the Persian Daric — Unexpected
Visit from the Guardian of the Tomb— Inscriptions and other
Early Relics on the Great Mound — Alabaster Vases of Xerxes
— Egyptian Cartouch — ^Mr Birch's Remarks thereon — Sculp-
tured Trough 396
CHAPTER XXXI.
The " Black Stone" — Its Discovery and Adventures — ^Its Con-
nexion with the Welfare of Khdzistfin — ^The Plot for its Re-
moval Defeated — Investigations among the Rivers of Susa —
Identification of the "Ulai," or Eulaeus — Bifurcation of
Modem Rivers — Sheikh AbduUa Forgiven — ^Friendly Parting
between the Arabs and the Frank 416
Chbonolooical Table 435
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OHALDiEA AND SUSIANA.
CHAPTER I.
London to B^ghcUul — ^Turkisli and PersiAn Troubles — Colonel William9
and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople — ^Mesopotamia —
A Floweiy Wilderness — ^The City of Hlurtinu-'r-R^shld — Pestilence
— Nedjib and Abdl Pashas.
Fob many centuries the extensive frontier between Turkey
and Persia has been in an unsettled state, continually
changing its limits as the strength or influence of
either Government for the time prevailed. The affable
Persian naturally regards the haughty Osminli in the
light of an intruder upon those rich plains which owned
obedience to the might of the Kayanians and Sassanians
in the days of D4r4b and Sh&piir. Keligious difference,
moreover, adds to the political animosity of the two great
Mohammedan powers. The phlegmatic Turk quietly
smokes his chibiik, swears by the beard of. Omar, and
thanks the omnipotent Allah for all the blessings he
enjoys ; on the other hand, the ardent follower of the
martyred 'Ali curses the orthodox believer, and takes
every opportimity to insult his patron saints. It may be
easily conceived that such political and religious disagree-
ments are frequently productive of a state of anarchy and
bloodshed, when the subjects of the two nations come into
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2 THE TURKO-PERSIAN FRONTIER.
close contact. To add to the difficulties attending any
proposed reconciliation, the frontier is inhabited by various
predatory races, who regard both Turk and Persian with
equal hatred, and who are only too happy to exercise their
plundering propensities by incursions into either territory.
The internal divisions and jealousies which exist among
these warlike tribes fortunately prevent them from com-
bining, as in the days of the Parthians, and proving
formidable competitors for the possession of Oriental
dominion.
In 1839-40, the outbreak of serious hostilities between
the Turkish and Persian Governments, arising from the
causes above mentioned, was imminent, and likely, in
the course of time, to endanger the tranquillity of the
whole world. The Cabinets of England and Kussia, in-
fluenced doubtless by the proximity of their own fron-
tiers in India and Georgia to the regions in question, and
therefore interested in the maintenance of peace, offered
their friendly mediation for the purpose of restraining
the belligerent attitude of their Mohammedan neighbours.
The proposal was accepted, and commissioners from the
four powers assembled at Erzenim, who, after sitting four
years, eventually concluded a treaty, one article of which
determined that representatives should be sent to survey
and define a precise line of boundary which might not
admit of future dispute. A joint commission was conse-
quently appointed to carry out this article. The British
Government selected Colonel WiUiams, RA.,**^ to this ser-
vice, his previous experience during the protracted con-
ferences at Erzenim having eminently qualified him for
the task now assigned him. Colonel Tcherikofi^ the
Russian commissioner, although not a party to the treaty,
* Tliroughout this volume, " the Hero of Kara " is alluded to under
the rank ho held at the time as Commissioner for the delimitation of the
frontier.
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JOURNEY. 3
was equally well chosen to represent the Czar. With
these officers were associated Dervish Pasha, and Mirza
Jifer Khdn, the commissioners for Turkey and Persia
respectively. Both had been educated in Europe. The
former enjoyed the reputation of being the most learned
savant among his countrymen, an excellent linguist and
chemist. The latter soon endeared himself to the mem-
bers of the various parties by his obliging manners and
many acts of kindness and attention.
In January 1849, I was attached by Lord Palmerston
as geologist to the staff of Colonel Williams, and directed
to lose no time in joining my chief On reaching Constan-
tinople, and presenting myself, according to instructions,
to Lord Stratford de Eedcliffe (then Sir Stratford Canning),
I learned that Colonel Williams and his party had set out
from thence on Christmas-day, and that letters had been
received, dated Siw&s, giving a deplorable account of the
state of the weather and roads. The snow had fallen to
such an unprecedented depth, that the greatest difficulty
beset their journey, and at several places it was found
necessary, after many days' detention, to cut roads for the
passage of the mules. Under these circumstances, the
ambassador detained me at Constantinople for a few
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